Time to Abolish the Duchy of Lancaster

The duchy of Lancaster is one of two duchies left in England – the other being the duchy of Cornwall. Lancaster was likely an honour prior to 1066; it became a county palatine in 1267 and a duchy in 1351. As such, it has been held by the sovereign separate to the Crown – a legal estate which passes from one sovereign to another as a form of inheritance. The purpose of this article is to consider the legal status of the duchy in modern times. Also, the various Crown prerogatives which have been franchised to it as well as other privileges it has acquired over the centuries. This article concludes that the duchy should be abolished and its property transferred to the Crown Estate, since it no longer has any true legal purpose.This would not only be to the benefit of the sovereign, it would ensure easier administration, greater financial clarity and the abolition of obsolete laws,courts and sinecures.

Primarily, the duchy of Lancaster is a legal concept.Like the county palatines which still exist in the case of Durham and Chester, the county palatine of Lancaster -which later became part of the duchy of Lancaster -was accorded various Crown prerogatives (jura regalia) such that it acted as a semi-kingdom in many respects.There was good political reason for this.After the Norman Conquest in 1066, it was essential for the early medieval kings to gain control over an England that was by no means unified.The means employed was to grant great powers to particular feudal lords in order to pacify areas of the realm which were susceptible to revolt.In the case of Lancaster it was likely an honor even prior to 1066. 1 It became a county palatine in 1267 and a duchy in 1351.The duchy of Lancaster was not absorbed into the Crown when the Duke of Lancaster became Henry IV (1399-1413) in 1399.Instead, it remained separate to the Crown, often being referred to as an 'appanage' of the same.This was confirmed in 1485 when an Act of Parliament provided that the duchy would pass to Henry VII (1485-1509) and his heirs for ever.
In summary, the county palatine of Lancaster is part of the duchy -the latter being more extensive than the former.And the duchy is separate from the Crown, a legal estate passing from the sovereign to his (or her) heir as a form of inheritance.So much for history.The purpose of this article is to consider whether there is any need for the duchy in the modern world.One where the general public -and most lawyers -are not over familiar with the legal niceties of duchies and county palatines.A previous article has argued for the abolition of the county palatines of Chester, Durham and Lancaster on the basis that this status is now one in name only -given that all jura regalia once accorded to them have either reverted to the Crown or are effectively obsolete. 2This articleafter a review of the various charters and pieces of legislation governing the duchy of Lancaster -concludes that the duchy should also be abolished, having no true legal purpose.Further, that its assets should be transferred to the Crown Estate.This would not only be to the benefit of the sovereign, it would ensure easier administration, greater financial clarity and the abolition of obsolete laws, courts and sinecures.
There have been a number of legal texts written in respect of the duchy.Many relate to pleadings in its courts 3 as well as chancery orders and practice. 4These are obsolete since the relevant courts no longer operate.Other texts concern office holders 5 and records 6 relating to the duchy as well as general histories. 7Of particular use are: Sir William Hardy, The Charters of the Duchy of Lancaster (1845), 8 Edward Baines, The History of the County Palatine and Duchy of Lancaster (1868) 9 and Robert Somerville, History of the Duchy of Lancaster  (1953). 10The duchy also has a website. 111.Duchy of Lancaster -Background History 12 Halsbury notes that: The Duchy of Lancaster comprises an honour or complex of estates and jurisdiction which originally formed the patrimony of the earls and dukes of Lancaster.It includes the county palatine of Lancaster which was conferred by Henry III [1216-72] in 1267 upon his [second] son Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, 13 and was by Edward III [1327-77] by a charter of 1351 invested with the full jura regalia, or prerogative rights of a county palatine.
After various subsequent charters and devolutions of title the duchy, of which the county palatine formed parcel, became vested in Henry VII [1485-1509], who, by charter having the authority of an Act of Parliament, resettled it upon himself and his heirs as separate from the Crown of England with the same officers and the same seals, and in as large and ample a manner as Henry IV [1399-1413], Henry V [1413-22] and Henry VI [1422-61 & 70-1] had it. 14(wording divided for ease of reference) Although the duchy includes a county palatine 15 the former is more extensive since it includes territory outside the palatinate such as a district surrounded by the City of Westminster where the Court of the Duchy Chamber is located. 16As to the relevant historical detail in respect of the formation of the duchy, the following may be noted:  Honor of Lancaster.The honor of Lancaster is very ancient.Probably, pre-conquest; 17  County Palatine of Lancaster.The county palatine was created by Henry III in 1267, his son Edmund Crouchback also being made the first Earl of Lancaster. 18The county palatine was invested with full jura regalia in 1351; 19  Duchy of Lancaster.As Blackstone (writing in 1765) notes, 20 the duchy of Lancaster was created in favour of Henry Grosmont (1310-61), Earl of Lancaster. 21By a charter of 6 th March 1351, 22 Grosmont was created Duke of Lancaster 23 as a reward for military services rendered by him to Edward III (1327-77) in France. 24On his dying in 1361 without male heirs his estate passed to John of Gaunt (1340-99) 25 the fourth son of Edward III.In 1359, he had married Blanche, the younger daughter of the first duke.She was co-heiress -with her sister Maud -of the duke's estate and then sole heir on her sister's death in 1362 without issue; 26  John of Gaunt was created the second Duke of Lancaster in right of his wife by a charter confirmed in Parliament on 13 th November, 1362 which title was then to be held by him and his heirs male. 27During his life, John of Gaunt considerably augmented the duchy land. 28 the death of John of Gaunt in 1398, his only son -Henry Plantagenet (surnamed Bolingbroke from the place of his birth) 29 -became Duke of Lancaster.He supplanted Richard II (1377-99) in September 1399 to become king of England as Henry IV (1399-1413).In a charter called the Lancaster charter (also, the Great Charter of the duchy) 30 of 14 October 1399 -which charter is treated as an Act of Parliament 31 -it was provided that the 16 Halsbury, n 14, vol 12(1), para 302, 'Though the county palatine is incorporated within the Duchy of Lancaster by charter, the duchy as an honour is distinct from the county palatine and includes much territory lying outside the county palatine, such as a district surrounded by the city of Westminster in which the Court of Duchy Chamber is located.' 17 See n 1.Also, Baines, n 9, App 1. 18 ODNB, n 13, the 'grant was…that of 30 June 1267, whereby he [Edmund Crouchback] received the honour, county, town and castle of Lancaster, and all royal demesne land in Lancaster, effectively becoming Earl of Lancaster…although he only used the title earl of Lancaster from December 1276.' See also Somerville, n duchy and other estates of the heritage of Lancaster would not be changed by the assumption of the regal dignity. 32Thus, the charter stated that Henry IV: do grant, declare, decree and ordain, for us and our heirs, that as well our duchy of Lancaster, as all and singular the other counties, honors, castles, manors, fees, advowsons, possessions, annuities, and lordships whatever, to us howsoever and wheresoever descended before our adoption of the royal dignity, by hereditary right, in demesne, in service, or in reversion, or otherwise howsoever, shall for ever remain to us and our said heirs in the charters aforesaid specified in form aforesaid; and that they so and in such wise, and by such officers and ministers, in all things be managed, governed, and treated as they would have remained, been managed, governed, and treated, if we had never assumed the ensign of royal dignity.
And, moreover, that such and the like liberties, jura regalia, customs, and franchises, in the said duchy, counties, honors, castles, manors, fees, and other possessions and lordships aforesaid, in all, and throughout all, be had, exercised, continued, done, and used for ever, and they by such officers and ministers be governed and executed, as and which were wont to be had and used in the same duchy, counties, honors, castles, manors, fees, and other possessions and lordships, and by whom they were wont to be ruled and governed, as well in the time of our said lord and father, as in the times of other our progenitors and ancestors, by virtue of the charters aforesaid. 33(italics supplied and wording divided for ease of reference).
Subsequent events affecting the legal status of the duchy of Lancaster up to 1485 are as follows:  In the Parliament Roll of 6 th October 1399, it is recorded that Henry IV conferred the duchy of Lancaster on his eldest son, Henry -later Henry V (1413-22) 34 and an exemplification of 22 December 1406 35 which is treated as an Act -established the right of succession to the duchy to the said Henry and provided that the ancient rights of the duchy should be maintained inviolate; 36  An Act of 4 November 1461 declared that Henry VI (1422-61 and 1470-1) was attainted for high treason, having been surplanted on the throne by Edward IV (1461-83). 37The Act further provided for the duchy to be incorporated and united in possession with the Crown as well as its being granted to Edward IV and his heirs, being kings of England, perpetually. 38Also, the county palatine was annexed to the duchy. 3932 ODNB, n 13 (Henry IV), 'From the beginning of his reign he continued to treat his Lancastrian and Bohun lands as personal property, to be kept administratively separate from those of the Crown, and used their revenues primarily to fund substantial and very expensive retaining fees.' 33 36 Hardy, n 8, p 148 'Nevertheless by this statute or ordinance, so far as regards the duchy of Lancaster, and its rights, possessions, honors, and customs, with all their appurtenances, and the succession and manner of suceeding in the aforesaid duchy, whether in chief or in its members, we do nothing intend to change or innovate, but that in all the premises and in all other modes and forms in which before this statute the same duchy was wont to be ruled, administered, and governed, we will resolve, decree, and declare, that the ancient rights, statutes, and customs of the same duchy shall be held, executed, and purely observed for ever, notwithstanding this our statute, or any other soever passed in this Parliament.'See also Hardy The effect of this was that the duchy was held by the sovereign in his body politic, as opposed to his body natural; 40 In 1485, a charter which is treated as an Act of Parliament 41 provided that Henry VII (1485-1509) would hold and enjoy to him and his heirs for every more the county palatine of Lancaster and all honors etc. 42 This charter broke the entail of Edward IV, and entailed both Crown and the duchy on Henry VII and his heirs for ever.Thus, the sovereign held, once more, the duchy in his body natural (it seems) as opposed to his body politic. 43lthough the position historical position is complicated, the conclusion is clear:  The county palatine of Lancaster was created in 1267. 44It was granted various jura regalia in 1351 and it became a parcel of the duchy in 1461;  Both the county palatine and the duchy pass from sovereign to sovereign as a separate and distinct inheritance from the Crown itself.This is the effect of the specific provisions preventing them being merged in the case of Henry IV (in1399), Edward IV (in 1461) and Henry VII (in 1485). 45e land comprising the duchy has been subject to many fluctuations over time.Further, it was often sold off (and re-acquired) -as well as being encumbered with dis-advantageous fee farm rents and mortgages -by impecunious sovereigns. 46Only in the reign of George III (1760-1820) was a more efficient management of the duchy instituted.The title of the Crown to the foreshore abutting on the land of the county palatine of Lancaster rests either on its prima facie right or on grants made to the Dukes of Lancaster before possession of the duchy became part of the possessions of the Crown. 47 43 See, however, the discussion of this in 2(b). 44Many accounts of the duchy say that it was created a county palatine in 1351.This is incorrect.It was a county palatine in 1267.However, it was only accorded (formally) with extensive jura regalia in 1351.Cf.Coke, n 22, vol 4, pp 204-5. 45Halsbury, n 14, vol 12(1), para 300, n 4 'By these charters the duchy and county palatine were reunited in possession with the Crown, and the jura regalia were only prevented from merging by their special provisions.'. 46 [1399-1413] being the fourth son: and therefore he intended not, that by the law of the Crown the duchy should go with the Crown, and that he should be seised thereof in right of the Crown, as the king afterwards was of the possessions of the duchy of York, earldom of March and others. 51(spelling modernized and wording divided for ease of reference) In short, Henry IV kept the duchy separate from the Crown since he was more certain of his legitimate right to the former than the latter and that -if he later lost his Crown -he still had the duchy of Lancaster to fall back on.

(b) Status of the Duchy in 1561
Despite the duchy (which includes the county palatine) being separate from the Crown can it really be said that the sovereign, today, holds it in a natural capacity (persona privata) as opposed to in a political (persona publica)? 52Halsbury states: In virtue of this charter [i.e. the charter of Henry VII of 1485, see 1] the duchy has been held to be vested in the monarch in her natural capacity, and not in her political capacity in right of the Crown, though this appears to have been doubted. 53e authority cited for the sovereign holding the duchy in a natural capacity is the Thus, the duchy was held, so the judges concluded, by the sovereign as a personal possession and not as a political (i.e.State) one. 56It should be noted, however, this was doubted in the same case. 57The sovereign holding the duchy as a personal possession was also doubted in Alcock v Cooke (1829). 58Here, Best CJ stated: Does the king descend from his high estate, to hold lands in any part of the kingdom upon different terms from those on which he holds all his estates ?It would be inconsistent with the dignity of the king that he should do so; and therefore it has been decided that, although he hold lands as Duke of Lancaster, he holds them as king also; and that all the prerogatives and privileges of the king belong to him with reference to those lands, the same as they do with reference to lands which belong to him immediately in right of his Crown.59

(c) Status of the Duchy Today
What of the legal position of the duchy today?One would assert that, while it may have been the legal position that Henry VII [1485-1509] held the duchy as a personal possession, today the sovereign holds the duchy in a political capacity only. 60In short, the Queen cannot do with the duchy as she likes.It is not a personal possession such as her private residences of Sandringham and Balmoral are, for example.The Queen cannot sell -or transfer -the duchy to anyone else since the Act of 1485 (see 1) expressly provides that it devolves on the sovereign's 'heirs' 61 (although she can grant the actual title of Duke of Lancaster on to someone else -separate from the duchy. 62However, this has always been the case, regardless of whether the sovereign held the duchy in a natural, or a political, capacity).
One would also assert that the Queen, today, actually has no real influence over the duchy, such as a true landowner would have when possessing an estate in a personal capacity. 63Thus, unlike a true landowner, the Queen is not responsible for all property in the duchy such as rivers, bridges, roads, buildings etc.The State has taken over this role in the duchy just as it has elsewhere and the general law applies.Further, apart from a few employees of the duchy, no one else living in the duchy works for her as the duke, and they owe her no personal obligations.Indeed, one would suggest, today, that the position of the duchy of Lancaster -vis-a-vis the Queen is, in fact -no different to the Crown Estate which is not owned by the Crown personally. 64Thus, the Queen's status is a political (formal) one -as opposed to the duchy being her personal possession to do with as she likes.

(d) Revenues of the Duchy
As Halsbury notes, the sovereign receives, via the privy purse, 65 the revenues of the duchy. 66This is longstanding.Although, during the English Civil War (1642-60) the revenues of the duchy went to the State, 67 apart from this period, the revenues from the duchy have gone to the sovereign.Baines (writing in 1888) stated: In each successive reign, from the period when Henry of Bolingbroke ascended the throne of this kingdom [i.e.1399] to the present time, with the exception of the interregnum of the Commonwealth, the sovereigns of England have enjoyed the title of duke and the revenues of the duchy of Lancaster, both of which are now in possession of our gracious sovereign, and will descend as an inalienable within the county of Lancaster or without parcel of the duchy (the royal and polick capacity of the king not being altered)'.See also Selden Society Reports, Reports from the Lost Notebooks of Sir James Dyer, vol 109, pp 30-1 ('name of duke was drowned in the name of king.'). 60The Act of Settlement 1700 passes to the reigning sovereign (descending from Princess Sophia referred to in the Act) all 'honours, styles, titles, regalities, prerogatives, powers, jurisdiction and authorities belonging or appertaining to the Crown and regal government'.This would include the title of Duke of Lancaster, the jura regalia (prerogatives)| given to the county palatine and the jurisdiction of the duchy.However, the Act does not, in itself, decide today whether the sovereign holds the duchy in a personal or official capacity.See Halsbury, n 14, vol 12 (1), para 300, n 10. 61  inheritance to the successors of the present monarch. 68at the Queen receives such revenues today is not determinative of the issue of whether she holds the duchy in a natural or a political capacity. 69For example, although the Crown jewels are used by the sovereign in a natural capacity, it has long been accepted that they are held on behalf of the nation. 70Also, from an early date, revenues from the duchy were being used to finance the Crown in the wider sense (i.e.royal government) as opposed to going into the pocket of the sovereign in person. 71Further, the sovereign receives funds from the Crown Estate, as part of her Civil List, and no one is suggesting that the sovereign holds the Crown Estate in a natural capacity.

(e) Sovereign holds the Duchy in a Political Capacity
Castor stated that, by 1461: Edward IV [1461-83], unlike his predecessors, held the duchy not as a private possession but in right of the crown.To the new king, therefore, the Lancastrian estates formed merely one part of his royal inheritance, and Lancastrian lordship one aspect of his royal authority.The duchy was no longer a personal power base held by the king in his 'body natural'; its incorporation into the 'body politic' of the crown was complete. 72e would agree and assert that, in actually -and despite the case of the Duchy of Lancaster (1561) -sovereigns since Edward IV in 1461 have held the duchy in a political capacity.Indeed, more and more so, as the role of the sovereign has diminished while that of the State has increased.Thus, whatever the legal fiction may have been in 1561, today, the sovereign cannot treat the duchy of Lancaster as a personal possession.And if she sought to do so -just as if Prince Charles attempted to do so in respect of the duchy of Cornwall -this would provoke a political crisis.
In conclusion, the sovereign holds the duchy of Lancaster (including the county palatine) in a political -that is,in an official capacity -only.

County Palatine of Lancaster and Jura Regalia
Halsbury notes that: The royal prerogatives extend, in general, to the lands of the duchy of Lancaster as they do to the land held in right of the Crown. 73 respect of the benefits of Lancaster being a county palatine, Coke (writing in 1641) stated of the latter that: The power and authority of those that had counties palatine was king-like, for they might pardon treasons, murders, felonies, and outlawries thereupon. 74They might also make justices of eire, justices of assise, of goal delivery, and of the peace. 75And all original, and judicial writs, and all manner of indictments of treason and felony, and the process thereupon were made in the name of the persons having such county palatine.And in every writ and indictment within any county palatine, it was supposed to be contra pacem of him that had then the county palatine. 68Ibid, p 77. 69 The Queen is said not to be entitled to the capital of the portfolio, nor capital profits.The sovereign also pays tax on the revenue.See Annual Report of the Duchy of Lancaster 2011. 70Halsbury, n 14, vol 12(1), para 374 'The monarch may not grant away the jewels of the Crown, which are heirlooms and as such do not pass to the executor.'The same applies in respect of the royal collections.Ibid, para 375 'None of the royal collections or heirlooms are regarded by the monarch as being at her personal disposal.' 71Castor, n 7, pp 34, 37. Also p 38 'By 1422, Henry V [1413-22] had succeeded in integrating traditions of Lancastrian service into a united body politic, and in maximizing the potential of the duchy as a financial resource in national government.'Cf. Henry VI [1422-61 & 1470-1], p 50. 72 Castor, n 7, p 312 referring to Kantorowicz, n 52, pp 9-10,403-4.Castor also notes, p 6 that 'by the fifteenth century the concept of the 'crown' in its broadest sense represented not the king alone, but the unity formed by the ruler and the ruled, the king and the realm.' 73 Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p 41 'the palatine powers were royal powers in devolution, an arrangement which served well in regions where effective government from the centre was impossible or difficult to attain.' Certain palatine powers were re-vested in the Crown pursuant to the Jurisdiction in Liberties Act 1535, ss 1-3 (27 Hen 8 c 24, rep) 74 Outlawry was abolished in 1938.The Criminal Law Act 1967, s 1 abolished felonies. 75Justices of eyre, assise and goal delivery have been abolished.Justices of the Peace are now regulated by statute.
But these and some others are taken away from them that have such county palatines, and annexed to the Crown, and all writs to be made in the king's name, but the teste is in the name of him that hath the county palatine; and they shall have forfeitures of lands and goods for high treason, which forfeiture accrues by common law. 76But for treasons or forfeits given after the erection of the county palatine by any act of parliament, they shall not have them.(spelling modernized and wording divided for ease of reference). 77is palatinate of Lancaster was more endowed that the other palatinates, despite being younger than they were. 78What exactly were the jura regalia which the county of Lancaster had, however?This may be determined with reference to the various charters granted in respect of the duchy (listed in Annex A).Somerville summarized them as follows: The grant of palatine powers to the duke of Lancaster expressly invoked the Chester model…He was to have his chancery in the county, issuing writs under the special seal of that chancery; and his own justices for pleas of the Crown and all other pleas touching the common law, with execution to be made by his writs and his ministers in the county.But the king did not grant away all royal authority in the county, for he reserved the right of direct taxation in the form of tenths and fifteenths and other subsidies, as well as ecclesiastical tenths and grants.Moreover, he retained the power to pardon life and limb and to correct errors in the duke's courts of the county. 79It was also provided that the duke should send to Parliament two knights of the shire and two burgesses from every borough in the county, and assign collectors of tenths, fifteenths and subsidies 80 …Of the palatine rights referred to in general terms the most distinctive, not expressly mentioned in the grant but implied in the provisions for a chancery, was that the king's writ did not run in the palatinate…It followed that men of the palatinate could not be summoned to appear or answer any matter outside it; but this was not so in causes of treason and error…Other rights in …Chester … which attached also to the county palatine of Lancaster were the powers of making corporations and erecting fairs and markets, of staying procedure and granting exemption from juries or assizes. 81e jura regalia for the county palatine of Lancaster were granted in 1351 to Henry Grosmont, first Earl of Lancaster, for life.They were then given to his successor, John of Gaunt and extended to his heirs. 82After the death of John of Gaunt they were, by charter, extended to also cover the augmenting geographical ambits of the duchy.The nature of these jura regalia are now considered:

(a) County Palatine Courts
One of the most important benefits of being a county palatine was that Lancaster was able to operate its own court system as well as have certain privileges concerning the service of writs, summons etc. 83  Thus, a charter of 1351 provided for the Duke of Lancaster to have a court of chancery and for his writs to be sealed under his seal. 87Also, to have attachment of all pleas of the Crown and other pleas.These privileges were confirmed to John of Gaunt when he inherited 88 and, by letters patent of 10 November 1378, the latter was expressly given the right to have an exchequer in Lancashire with barons and other ministers as necessary. 89In respect of these courts -apart from the court of chancery -the Judicature Act 1873, s 16 transferred their jurisdiction to the High Court. 90The court of chancery was merged with the High Court pursuant to the Courts Act 1971. 91Thus, no county palatine courts operate today.

(b) Various Legal Privileges
A charter of 1349 provided for the Earl of Lancaster to have the return of all writs and summons of the exchequer. 92This was confirmed to John of Gaunt when he inherited. 93The effect of the grant of palatine privileges, however, was that -in the county palatine of Lancaster -the king's ordinary writs for redress of grievances or the punishment of offences between man and man were not available within the county palatine. 94owever, after 1535, all writs ran in the name of the sovereign, although reference was made to the chancellor of the duchy. 95As to other privileges:  It was also one of the privileges of a county palatine that none of its inhabitants could be summoned out of their own county except in the case of treason, or error by any writ or process; 96  The Crown had the prerogative to the chattels of felons and fugitives -as well as fines and amercements, forfeitures etc.This prerogative it could franchise to others -usually in return for the payment of money.Thus, a charter of 1349 provided that the Earl of Lancaster had the right to all the chattels of his men and tenants who were felons and fugitives; 97  A charter of 1349 provided that the Earl of Lancaster had the right to all fines and amercements for trespasses and other offences. 98Also, all pleas of withernam. 9986 Ibid, pp 54 & 91-2.There was also a court of criminal jurisdiction.However, it did not differ from the Queen's ordinary court and it disappeared as a result of the Judicature Act 1873.Ibid, p 54 and Somerville, n 6 (second article), p 65. 87 Hardy, n 8, p 10 'for the whole of his life he may have within the same county [of Lancaster] his chancery, and his writs to be sealed under his seal to be deputed for the office of the chancellor, his justices to hold as well pleas of the crown as all other pleas whatsoever touching the common law, and the cognizance thereof, and all manner of execution to be made by his writs and his ministers there.' 88 Ibid, p 12 'the return of all writs…and all pleas of withernam'.See also pp 13, 15, 22 & 33 (court of chancery). 89Ibid, p 63. See also Somerville, n 10, vol 1, pp 58-9.At p 59 'At the same time the duke was given power to appoint his own justices for pleas of the forest, a regality which had also been assumed from the general wording of the original grant and one which Duke Henry had exercised… Into the exchequer at Lancaster came the profits of justice; the barons levied fines imposed by the justices, and estreats from the chancery rolls were sent to the exchequer wherever it was affected…[also] although the records are lost, there is no doubt that this exchequer took cognizance of pleas of debt between subjects and the barons gave judgment as judicial officers.' 90Baines, n 9, p 92. See also Somerville, n 6 (second article), p 65. See also Somerville, n 10, vol 2, p 428. 91 Halsbury, n 14, vol 10, paras 853, 854 & 606, n 10. 92 Hardy, n 8, pp 6-7 'return of all writs of us and our heirs, and summons of the exchequer of us and our heirs, and the attachment as well of pleas of the crown as of other pleas whatsoever in all his lands and fees, so that no sheriff or other bailiff or minister of us or our heirs may enter those lands or fees to execute the same writs and summons, or to make attachment of pleas of the crown, or other pleas aforesaid, or to do any other office there, unless in default of the same Earl and his bailiffs and ministers in his lands and fees aforesaid.' 93Ibid, p 12 'the return of all writs…and all pleas of withernam'.See also pp 13, 15, 22, 33 (court of chancery) and 63 (charter of Richard II of 1378).See also Hardy, n 8, p 22 and Somerville, n 6 (second article), p 60 'the return of writs…the right to execute the king's process by his [i.e. the Duke's] own officers.' 94Somerville, n 6 (second article), p 60 'The technical result of the grant of palatine powers was the exclusion of the king's writ in the territory.'Also, p 61 'the palatine powers meant that the administration of justice in Lancashire was in the duke's hands.Therefore, there was created or adapted a whole system which was a replica in miniature of the royal courts at Westminster.' 95 27 Hen VIII (1535) c 24, s3 (rep).Baines (writing in 1888), n 9, p 82 'Hence it is that all ordinary writs out of the king's court at Westminster, for service in this county, are addressed to the chancellor of the duchy, commanding him to direct the sheriff to execute them, and that all processes to that office, out of the chancery of the county palatine, are not tested before the king or his justices at Westminster, as in other counties.'See also AT Carter, A History of the English Courts (7 th ed, 1944), p 116 and Blackstone, n 20, vol 3, p 79. 96 Coke, n 22, vol 4, p 411. See also Baines, n 9, p 87. 97 Hardy, n 8, p 7 'he [the Earl] may have the chattels of his men and tenants, being felons and fugitives, so that if any one of his men or tenants ought to lose life or limb for his offence, or shall flee and be unwilling to stand his trial, or commit any other offence for the which he ought to lose his chattels, whatsoever justice shall be had of him, whether in the court of us or our heirs or any other court, such chattels shall belong to the same Earl; and that it shall be lawful for him or his ministers without hindrance of us or our heirs, or of our sheriffs, or other bailiffs or ministers whomsoever, to put themselves in seisin of the chattels aforesaid, and to retain them to the use of the Earl.' 98 Ibid, pp 7-8 'he may have for the whole of his life all fines for trespasses and other offences whatsoever, and also all the fines for licence to agree, and all amercements, ransoms and forfeited issues, and forfeitures, year, day, and waste and estrepement, and all things which can pertain to us and our heirs of the like year, day, and waste, and murders, in respect of all the men and tenants of his lands and fees whatsoever These privileges were extended to John of Gaunt and his heirs.All these privileges are long obsolete.

(c) Freedom from Tolls
Another prerogative which the Crown often franchised was freedom from some, or all, tolls -these comprising a medieval form of local taxation.Thus, a charter of 1349 provided that the Earl of Lancaster was quit of all: paviage, passage, payage, lastage, stallage, tallage, carriage, pesage, picage and groundage. 100is was confirmed in a later charter to apply to John of Gaunt when he inherited. 101 in any soever of the courts of us and our heirs where such men and tenants shall happen to make fine or be amerced, or forfeit issues, or such year, day and waste, or forfeitures, and murders happen to be adjudged, as well before us and our heirs, and in the chancery of us and our heirs, and before the treasurer and barons of the exchequer of us and our heirs, and before the justices of the bench of us and our heirs and before the steward and marshals or the clerk of the market of the household of us and our heirs for the time being, and in all other courts of us and our heirs, and before the justices in heir, to hold common pleas and pleas of the forest, and before all other justices and ministers of us and our heirs whomsoever, as well in presence of us and our heirs as in absence of us and our heirs; which fines, amercements, ransoms, issues, year, day, waste, or estrepement, forfeitures and murders, would pertain to us or our heirs if they had not been granted to the aforesaid Earl.' 99 Withernam, which derives from the Anglo-Saxon words 'wither' and 'nam', signified a right to seize chattels in lieu of those unjustly taken or detained (i.e.reprisal).Oxford English Dictionary (OED)(withernam), 'In an action of replevin, the reprisal of other goods in lieu of those taken by a first distress and eloigned; also the writ (called capias in withernam) commanding the sheriff to take the reprisal.'See Blackstone, n 20, vol 3, pp 148-9. 1006 Halsbury, n 14, vol 29(2) para 1036, 'Stallage is the appropriate term for payment for the liberty of placing a stall on the soil or for standing room for cattle or goods within the market or fair.' OED, n 99, 'A tax or toll levied for the liberty of erecting a stall in a fair or market.'F Gunning, A Practical Treatise on the Law of Tolls (Saunders & Benning, London, 1833), p 85 'Stallage is a duty for the liberty of having stalls in a fair or market, or for removing them from one place to another.' See also Pease, n 105, ch 4. 107 OED, n 99 (tallage) 'An arbitrary tax levied by Norman and early Angevin kings upon the towns and the demesne lands of the Crown; hence, a tax levied upon feudal dependents by their superiors, also, by extension; a municipal rate, a toll or customs duty; a grant, levy, imposition, aid.' 108 OED, n 99, (carriage, 3) 'An impost on the transport of goods through a country or territory; a customs duty, toll, or carrier's licence.'  tronage (pesage); -toll for the weighing of goods on a public scale; 109  piccage (pickage) -toll for breaking the ground to erect a stall; 110  groundage (grondage) -toll levied on vessels lying on shore or entering a port; 111 It should be noted that 'passage' -although first used in the case of water such as in the case of ferry tollsbecame a generic term to also refer to the passage of persons along roads and across bridges.Thus, the reference to 'passage' as well as applying to any ferry toll might also cover any road and bridge tolls. 112There is nothing, however, exceptional in the duchy being exempt from all these tolls.Citizens of the City of London, for example, were exempt from all tolls 113 and partial (or full) exemption also applied to many other boroughs and towns.
All of these tolls are now obsolete, with many of them having been replaced by statute or contractual charges (for example, in the case of ferries, charges at fairs and port dues).

(d) Jura Regalia of Chester
In a charter of 1349, the Earl of Lancaster was also granted: all other liberties and jura regalia pertaining to a count palatine, as freely and entirely as the Earl of Chester is well known to obtain within the same county of Chester. 114e grant of such jura regalia was confirmed in a later charter to apply to John of Gaunt and his heirs. 115Thus, potentially, these privileges still apply to the duchy today.As it is, the palatinate of Chester -whose rights were referred to -was abolished in 1830 116 (in any case, a monograph on it tells little about its jura regalia). 117owever, as to what jura regalia the duchy of Lancaster had, mention is made in a charter of confirmation to John of Gaunt of 29 June 1396 of the following privileges given to the duchy (see also Annex A):  Assay That is, the weighing and assize of bread and other matters which belonged to the office of the clerk of the market. 118This is long obsolete.Indeed, when Blackstone wrote (in 1766) about clerks of the market they were almost obsolete because justices of the peace, sheriff's tourns and court leets all had the power to inquire into false weights and measures. 119Then, the Markets and Fairs Clauses Act 1847 required the owners of markets to provide proper weights and measures for commodities sold at fairs, obviating the clerk's job. 120Courts of clerks of the market were abolished in 1977; 121  Waif. 122Waifs comprises stolen goods which are cast away by a thief in flight. 123The Crown has the right to them in preference to the owner (i.e. the victim) as a punishment for the victim not pursuing the thief.The grant of this privilege to the duchy of Lancaster meant that it -as opposed to the Crownacquired this privilege.A previous article by the author has argued for the abolition of this right since it is obsolete and the caselaw is very old. 124Further, the prospect of waifs arising in modern times is remote, given the presence of a police force to pursue criminals (as opposed to the victim and his friends in times past), the ability of the police to identify the owner of goods etc;  Estrays.These are animals of a tame or reclaimable nature found wandering in any manor or lordship whose owner is unknown.A previous article by the author has argued for the abolition of this right since it is also obsolete. 125Further, the prospect of estrays arising in modern times is remote, given the legal requirements to micro-chip agricultural animals etc;  Deodands.There were chattels which had brought about the death of a living being. 126They were confiscated by the Crown.This privileged was franchised to the duchy. 127However, deodands were abolished in 1846; 128  Treasure Trove.Treasure trove is now governed by the Treasure Act 1996 and a previous article has considered it. 129Although the duchy has long been held in right of the Crown, prior charters granting treasure trove to the duchy were confirmed. 130Thus, the duchy still retains this privilege.If the duchy is abolished, this prerogative will revert to the Crown. 131It may be noted that any treasure trove in respect of the duchy, a relatively rare occurrence, does not pass to the Queen in person;  Mainour. 132(Also called 'manner').Essentially, this privilege comprised the right to stolen goods which were found on the thief (literally, in his hands).Closely related to waif (see above) mainour has long been obsolete;  Wreck.This is now governed by the legislation.The Merchant Shipping Act 1995 provides that the Crown is entitled to all unclaimed wreck found in the UK (or UK waters) except where the right has been granted to others. 133Wreck is claimed in Lancaster by the duchy. 134If the duchy is abolished the right to wreck (a rare occurrence in modern times) will return to the Crown. 135It may be noted that any treasure trove in respect of the duchy does not pass to the Queen in person; In conclusion, all the above prerogatives are obsolete apart from those relating to treasure trove and wreck.Both of the latter are relatively rare and are not availed of by the Queen in person.If the duchy were abolished, the process for them would be administratively simplified with persons finding treasure trove and wreck only having to deal with the Crown.

(e) Abolishing the County Palatine of Lancaster
As previously indicated, the county palatine of Lancaster was created in 1267 and it was accorded jura regalia in 1351 (see 1).However, by 1461, it had become part of the duchy. 136And the duchy itself is vested in the Crown.
In a previous article it has been contended, therefore, that the title of the 'county palatine' of Lancaster is an empty one. 137Not least since all the jura regalia accorded to the county palatine are now all obsolete save for wreck and treasure trove.And these -as well as rarely occurring -are not received by the Queen in a personal capacity.As a result, they pass to the Crown in a political capacity, in right of the duchy and could as easily pass to the Crown directly, saving administration.
It is asserted that the county palatine of Lancaster should be abolished since it serves no useful legal purpose.

Duchy of Lancaster -Privileges
If the county palatine of Lancaster is abolished, this will still leave the duchy.The only modern text which appears to deal with the legal position of the duchy is Halsbury.It records that the duchy has various privileges accorded to it by the common law and legislation, many of which relate to land.These are now considered:

(a) Court the Duchy Chamber of Lancaster and Attorney-General
The Court of the Duchy Chamber of Lancaster still exists -although it has long been obsolete qua court since it has not sat since 1835. 138It exercised an equity jurisdiction. 139This court was also a court of appeal from the chancery court of the county palatine of Lancaster (abolished in 1971, see 3(a)).Reference was made to the duchy court in Sir Thomas Smith's, The Commonwealth of England (1589) 140 as well as in other legal texts. 141t is asserted that the duchy court of Lancaster, being long obsolete, should be abolished with any jurisdiction it retains (if necessary) being merged with the High Court.The duchy of Lancaster also had a Star Chamber.However, it was abolished in 1640-1. 142Certain courts -the Barmote courts -exist within the duchy 143 and the chancellor of the duchy is responsible for appointing the steward and barmaster of the barmote courts on behalf of the sovereign in right of her duchy.These courts do not sit in practice and are obsolete.The duchy of Lancaster also has its own attorney-general.He (or she) is appointed by patent under the seal of the duchy 144 and represents the duchy in legal matters before the courts. 145Given that the duchy is now part of the Crown and 136 See n 37. 137 McBain, n 2. 138  the obsolete nature of the duchy court of Lancaster, it is asserted this office should be abolished.The Crown's Attorney-General can handle such cases, which rarely arise in any case.

(b) Privileges in respect of Land
Halsbury refers to various privileges and restrictions which have arisen in the law as a result of the status of the duchy, viz. The non-recital of a prior grant for life invalidates a subsequent grant of duchy land;146  Three usurpations of an advowson in the duchy will not put the Crown out of the right; 147  Grants of duchy land are not void by reason of the minority of the sovereign; 148  In the absence of express words, or necessary intendment, the Crown in right of the duchy is not bound by legislation.However, this rule is subject to various exceptions; 149  Grants of duchy land are generally directed by the Duchy of Lancaster Lands Act; 1855 to be made under its seal.They constitute a matter of record and require no delivery; 150  Although the possessions of the duchy are within the restrictions on alienation imposed by the Crown Lands Act 1702, the chancellor and council can dispose of land not 'convenient' to be held 151 as well as inter-mixed land. 152They can also exchange land 153 and purchase any land they deem 'convenient' to be held. 154ne of these privileges are of great merit (and have rarely been availed of).Further, any restrictions have generally been avoided.Thus, the repeal of all these would cause little change in practice.

(c) Bona Vacantia and Escheat
Bona vacantia and escheat are now seen as two aspects of the vesting in the Crown of property which has no owner. 155The term 'bona vacantia' is applied to: (i) the residuary estate of persons dying wholly, or partially, intestate and without a husband, wife or other relative within the statutory classes; (ii) the property and rights of a dissolved company and certain other corporations; (iii) certain other interests including certain interests in trust property. 156In the case where bona vacantia occurs in the duchy this will pass to the duchy. 157'Escheat' is the capacity of the chief lord to resume land granted by him (or a predecessor in title) on determination of the estate granted.It may arise on disclaimer. 158Escheated realty (which rarely occurs) in the duchy will pass to the duchy. 159As it is, the duchy gives its revenue from bona vacantia and esheat, to two registered charities. 160This is handled by a private firm of solicitors on behalf of the duchy.If the duchy were abolished, the Crown would receive bona vacantia and escheat directly, simplifying things.

(d) Legislation and Charters
There are a number of charters which govern the duchy (see Annex A) some of which are treated as Acts of Parliament.Most of these are now obsolete.There are also a number of pieces of legislation referred to by Hardy in his text on the duchy of Lancaster, in respect of the period 1339-1558; these have been repealed.As for modern legislation relating to the duchy (much of which is antiquated) it deals, for the most part, with the removal of restrictions on alienating duchy land or dealing with duchy funds, as well as the use of the duchy seal. 161

(e) Duchy Officials and Powers of Appointment
The chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster is a government minister appointed by the sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister and is answerable to Parliament for the running of the duchy. 162Given this, the chancellor rarely has any involvement in the running of the duchy, this being left to the vice-chancellor. 163Other duchy officials include: an attorney general, receiver general, auditor, clerk of the council, solicitor, chief clerk, surveyor of lands, seal keeper, cursitor and clerk. 164 for powers of appointment which the duchy exercises:  Pursuant to the Local Government Act 1972, the duchy has the right to appoint high sheriffs and lords lieutenant in the ceremonial counties of Greater Manchester, Merseyside and Lancashire; 165  The Queen, in right of the duchy, has the right to 42 advowsons, that is, the right to present priests to livings in preference to the diocesan bishop.Given that only one of these advowsons adjoins a duchy estate today, the giving up of this right in favour of the diocesan bishop would not seem onerous; 166  The duchy also makes various minor ceremonial appointments which mainly relate to charities or seats on school, or university, councils. 167 the duchy were abolished, the Crown would directly deal with the appointment of high sheriffs and lords lieutenants.Doubtless, the relevant bishops could deal with the adowsons.

Abolishing the Duchy of Lancaster
Just as the county palatine has little legal purpose, so does the duchy.Thus, the Court of the Duchy Chamber, qua court, has been obsolete since 1835; certain legal privileges in respect of duchy land are not worth retaining and the duchy does not benefit from bona vacantia and escheat in practice.
It is argued that the duchy should be abolished.This would enable matters to be dealt with by the Crown directly and remove obsolete legislation and charters.It would also remove a layer of administration and officials wholike the attorney general of the duchy -are, in truth, no longer necessary.All this can only be to the public good since it will make what now is, essentially, the administration of State property, more transparent, and accountable.It would also be to the benefit of the sovereign who is regularly lambasted for having great wealth 16 Feb 1390 Grant that the Duke and heirs male shall have in the county of Lancaster their chancery, justices to hold pleas and jura regalia as freely as the Earl of Chester, their exchequer and barons thereof and the appointment of justices of the forest except in pleas arising where the Crown is party. 186The Duke and his heirs to send members to Parliament for the shire and boroughs and to assign collectors of subsidies and taxes granted by Parliament.Title of Duke of Lancaster to be retained. 187179 Ibid, pp 19-25. 180Ibid, pp 26-31.See also Somerville, n 10, vol 1, pp 52-3 and Castor, n 7, p 22. 181 Reservation to the Crown of all tenths, fifteenths and other subsidies and taxes granted by Parliament and of the power of pardoning life with superiority and correction of errors or defect of justice in the courts of the Duke of Lancaster. 182Hardy, n 8, pp 32-4. 183Hardy, n 8, p 42. 184 Ibid, p 49. 185 Ibid, pp 62-4. 186Reservation to the Crown of Parliamentary aids and taxes, pardon of life, and correction of erroneous judgments or in failure of justice. 187Ibid, pp 65-70.Also, Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p 141 (grant of a chancery in Lancaster granted on the Duke of Lancaster in tail male).
19 Nov 1414 Heritage of the earldom of Hereford shall be severed from the Crown and annexed to the duchy.Recital and confirmation of prior grants contained in charters.Declaration that the liberties, customs and franchises shall be exercised throughout without let from the king's officers.All matters heretofore passed under the duchy seal declared to be valid.The same seal to be used in the future for the affairs of the duchy.The liberties and jura regalia shall be exercised throughout the estates of the earldoms of Hereford, Essex and Northampton and by the officers and ministers of the duchy and these estates shall be subject to the same rule, management and seal and the same liberties and jura regalia be exercised therein as were used in the duchy out of the county palatine. 193All matters relating to said estates heretofore passed under the duchy seal declared valid.The tenants and residents shall enjoy the liberties and customs without let from the king's officers.Presentations to ecclesiastical benefices shall pass under the duchy seal.Chancellor or treasurer of England not to intermeddle by reason of the king's title or of their offices.All lands which since the ordinance of Henry IV have come into the king's hands by escheat, forfeiture or otherwise, in right of the duchy, shall be annexed thereto, and all lands so coming into the king's hands in future shall be forthwith annexed to the heritage to which they are known to belong.All estates so annexed shall be subject to the like rule, management and seal and the said liberties and jura regalia be exercised there. 194 Nov 1414 Justices of the Peace (JPs) shall be appointed from persons resident in the respective counties, except justices of assize.Chief stewards of the duchy for north and south parts shall be JP's. 195 May 1416 Chief stewards shall be named in all commissions of the peace.Grants etc concerning the duchy passed under any seal, apart from the duchy seal, are void. 196May 1421 Partition made of the heritage of the earldom of Hereford between Henry V (1413-22) and the countess of Stafford. 197Nov 1422 Proceedings in Parliament relating to the partition of 1421 (supra) of the fees and advowsons in gross of the heritage of the earldoms of Hereford, Essex and Northampton. 198 Jun 1432 Proceedings in Parliament on the petition of the countess of Stafford that a partition be made of the fees and advowsons in gross of the heritage of the earldom of Hereford. 199 Jan 1440 Revenues of the Duchy be applied to the expenses of the king's household for 5 years.200 25 Jan 1442 Certain persons be assigned to receive the declaration of the feoffees of lands parcel of the duchy to the use of Henry V's will touching the execution of the same.201 6 Apr 1446 Confirmation of letters patent passed under the duchy seal for conveying certain lands to feoffees to perform the will of Henry VI. 202 16 Jul 1449 Certain lands parcel of the duchy granted by letters patent to feoffees to perform the will of Henry VI. 203 20 Nov 1459 Appointment of new feoffees to perform the will of Henry VI. 204 7 Oct 1460 Lands parcel of the duchy shall not be governed by a distinct seal and officers but shall be managed by the officers and seal of the duchy as they were in ancient times before the making of such feoffment.205 7 Oct 1460 The Commons pray that the revenues of the duchy be paid over by the Reciever-General to the treasurer of England, to be employed for the present necessity of the realm.Answer.Not to extend to lands in feoffment.
Receiver-General to account before auditors of the duchy and not in the exchequer. 206Oct 1460 Appointment of new feoffees. 207Nov 1461 Henry VI attainted of high treason.All his possessions of the duchy to be forfeited to the Crown.Said possessions to be incorporated and called the Duchy of Lancaster.The king to hold the same to him and his heirs, kings of England.The county of Lancaster to be a county palatine, parcel of the duchy.It shall have a seal, chancellor etc.Another seal called the seal of the duchy and a chancellor etc. Officers of the duchy and the tenants shall enjoy all liberties etc as in the time of Henry V. 208 14 Nov 1461 Confirmation by inspeximus of charter of 14 Oct 1399.Recital of Act of 4 Nov 1461.209 23 Feb 1475 Act that certain lands, parcel of the duchy be put in feoffment for the performance of the will of Edward IV. 210 1 Mar 1475 Act extending Ordinance for the payment of the king's debts assigned by patent bill or tally on the possessions of the duchy.211 20 Jan 1483 The king in right of the duchy shall not be deprived of wardship and marriage and reliefs by reason of feoffments in trust etc. 212 7 Nov 1485 Repeal of Act of 23 Feb 1475.The lands late in hands of the feoffees under the said Act, the county palatine of Lancaster and all estates parcel of the Duchy vested in Henry VII and his heirs for ever with all liberties, to be governed by like officers and seals in an ample manner separate from the Crown as in the time of Henry IV or any subsequent king. 213 Hardy, n 8, p 17 'have and hold the same name and honour of the Duke of Lancaster to him and his heirs male of his body lawfully begotten for ever.' Baines, n 9, pp 56-7, '[John of Gaunt] was in Parliament declared Duke of Lancaster, in right of his wife Blanche, and the king girt him with a sword, and set on his head a cap of fur, and a circlet of gold with pearls therein, and created him Duke of Lancaster, with all the liberties and regalities of an earl palatine…' See also Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p 50 and Castor, n 7, p 22.
10, vol 1, pp 3 & 8-9; W Fleetwood, Ducatus Lancastriae (for which, see Baines, n 9, p 81) and WE Rhodes, Edmund, Earl of Lancaster (1895) English Historical Review, vol 38, pp 210-37.This land was effectively forfeited land, see also W Hamilton, My Queen and I (Quartet Books, London, 1975), p 80 (land forfeited by Simon de Montfort and the Earl of Ferrers after the defeat of the barons in 1265).19On the creation of Henry Grosmont as Duke of Lancaster, see Somerville, n 10, vol 1, pp 40-1 'To add some substance to the dignity Lancashire was transformed into a county palatine on the model of Chester…palatine powers were royal powers in devolution, an arrangement which served well in regions where effective government from the centre was impossible or difficult to attain.'Thisgrant was only given by Edward III [1327-77] to Henry Grosmont, for life.However, it was then granted by Edward III to John of Gaunt for life in 1377 (see Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p 56) and then (in 1390, ibid, p 64) to John of Gaunt and his heirs.See also Baines, n 9, p 82 and Somerville, n 6 (second article), p 59. 20 W Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1 st ed, 1765-9, University of Chicago Press rep 1979), vol 1, p 113. 21 ODNB, n 13, records 'in 1351, Edward [III] affirmed his personal bond by raising Lancaster [i.e. Henry Grosmont, Earl of Lancaster] to the rank of duke and granted his county of Lancaster the status of a palatinate for the term of his life…the grant of palatinate powers was without parallel in recent history, establishing the county on the same privileged basis as the ancient palatinates of Chester and Durham.' 22 E Coke, Institutes of the Laws of England (W Clarke & Sons, London, last ed, 1824), vol 4, p 204. See also Hardy, n 8, p 9; Baines, n 9, pp 54, 145-7 and Somerville, n 10, vol 1, pp 40-1.23SeeODNB,n 13 (Henry Grosmont, 1 st Duke of Lancaster).See also Baines, n 9, p 51.For the extent of the duchy at the time of the death of the first Duke, see Baines, n 9, pp 147-52.24Thecharter of 6 th March 1351 stated that 'Henry Earl of Lancaster, who, yielding to no labour and charges, hath ever shown himself ready to serve us, and many times in our need intrepidly exposing himself for us to the dangers of war, hath nobly triumphed over our enemies.'SeeHardy,n8,p9andBaines,n 9, p 145.25See ODNB, n 13 (John of Gaunt).His name 'Gaunt' came from reference to Ghent where he was born. 26ines, n 9, p 56. Blanche died in 1369. 27 28, n 9, p 57.29At the time Henry Bolingbroke was Earl of Derby and Duke of Hereford.See ODNB, n 13 (Henry IV) and Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p 67.30There is also another charter of that same date dealing with the Hereford estates of John of Gaunt, since Henry IV only had a life share in his wife (Mary Bohun's) inheritance, see Hardy, n 8, p 91 and Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p 140.An Act of 1414 prevented this estate from being merged with the Crown, see Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p 177.31See 'Carta Regis Henrici quarti de separatione Ducatus Lancastrae a corona Auctoritate Parliamenti' (Charter of Henry 4 of Separation of the Lands and Possessions of the Duchy of Lancaster from the Crown).Also, Hardy, n 8, p 102 ('A Declaration of the King's Intention').Blackstone, n 20, vol 1, p 114 'He [Henry IV] procured an act of parliament, in the first year of his reign, to keep [the duchy] distinct and separate from the crown…'.See also Coke, n 22, vol 4, p 205 and Somerville, n 10, vol 1, pp 67 & 140.
And that the county of Lancaster be a county palatine.And that our liege and sovereign lord king Edward the fourth, and his heirs, have, as parcel of the said duchy, the same county of Lancaster a county palatine, and a seal, chancellor, judges and officers there for the same.' Duchy of Lancaster Case (1561) 1 Plowd 212 (75 ER 325) at 220 'the said statute of king Edward 4 ordains three things, first, it establishes the county palatine of Lancaster; secondly, it vests it in the body politic of the king of this realm and his heirs; thirdly it divides it from the order of the other possessions of the Crown.' (opinion of judges).Fisher v Batten (1683) 1 Ventr 155 (86 ER 105) at p 157 per Hale CJ 'The county palatine of Lancaster is by Act of Parliament [i.e. the Act of 1461, see n 37].'

48 2. Legal Status of The Duchy (a) Non-Merger of the Duchy with the Crown
conclusion, the duchy of Lancaster embraces a county palatine and both are held by the sovereign without being annexed to the Crown.They comprise a 'separate and distinct inheritance'.
King H 4 [i.e. Henry IV, 1399-1413] by his charter by authority of parliament, anno primo of his reign [i.e.1399] doth sever the possessions of the duchy, etc. from the crown: and that which John of Gaunt held for life, is established for ever, and specially by the statutes of 1 E 4 [1461] 49 and 1 Hen 7 [1485] 50 hereafter mentioned: and this separation Hen 4 made, for that he knew he had the duchy of Lancaster (par multis regnis) sure and indefeasible title: and he could not be both rex and dux, but specially that his title to the Crown was not so assured, for that after the decease of Ric 2 [ie.Richard II, 1377-99] the right of the Crown was in the heir of Lionel40Duchy of Lancaster Case (1561) 1 Plowd 212 (75 ER 325) at 219 'So that the said inheritance of the dutchy is [placed] and settled only in the body politic of the king.' 41 1 Hen 7 (1485).See also Coke, n 22, vol 4, p 205.42Blackstone, n 20, vol 1, p 114-5, 'And in 1 Hen VII [1485] another act was made to vest the inheritance thereof in Henry VII and his heirs; and in this state, say sir Edward Coke and Lambard, viz.in the natural heirs or posterity of Henry VII, did the right of the duchy remain to their days; a separate and distinct inheritance from that of the crown of England.' Coke, n 22, vol 4, p 205 'By which act also all former entails are cut off, and in this state doth the duchy stand at this day…Within the county palatine of Lancaster the duke having jura regalia, his jurisdiction and privileges therein were very great.' (spelling modernized).See also Lambard, Archeion (Harvard UP, 1957), p 233; Baines, n 9, p 71 and Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p 261.
Hardy, n 8, p 346 'to him [ie.Henry VII] and his heirs for ever more.' (spelling corrected).Baines has described the duchy as an 'inalienable inheritance' see n 68. 62Plowd 212 (75 ER 325) at 217 'they don't make the king to be duke of Lancaster…for his name and dignity of king merges and drowns the inferior name and dignity of duke within his own realm.'Seealsop 222. Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p 144 'The dignity of duke, but not the duchy, could still be granted by the sovereign.Queen Elizabeth [Elizabeth I, 1558-1603] is reported to have offered the title to James VI of Scotland [later James I, 1603-25]; there was a suggestion in 1727 or the next year that it might have been a title for Prince William [William, Duke of Cumberland, son of George II, 1721-65] , and it was once thought that the Prince Consort Albert [husband of Queen Victoria, 1819-61] might be created duke of Lancaster.'SeealsoSomerville, n 10, vol 2, p 2. Halsbury, n 14, vol 12 (1), para 39 'The monarch…has title in right of the duchy of Lancaster by inheritance…The title in the duchy of Lancaster…merges[s] in that of the monarch.'63Somerville,n 10, vol 1, p 261 'the attachment of the duchy to the crown is the established fact.'.See also G Harrison, Memoir respecting the Hereditary Revenues of the Crown and the Revenues of the Duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster; and Remonstrance and Petition addressed to the Chancellor and Council of the Duchy of Lancaster (1838), p 139, n 3. 64 See generally, Halsbury, n 14, vol 12(1), para 278 'The Crown Estate comprises lands and other rights including minerals and certain incorporeal hereditaments which the monarch enjoys in her political capacity in right of the Crown and which are now under the management of the Crown Estate Commissioners.
. See also ibid, para 66. Cf.Crown Proceedings Act 1947 s 38(3) provides that references to the Queen in her private capacity are construed as including a reference to the Queen in right of the duchy of Lancaster.See also Halsbury, n 14, vol 12(1), para 103.65Halsbury, n 14, vol 12(1), para 68 n 6 'The privy purse is mainly financed through the net income of the duchy of Lancaster.'66Ibid,para 300.In fn 10 it states 'This seems to be by reason of Henry VII's charter [ie.charter of 1485, see n 41], for under Edward IV's charter [i.e. of 1461],the Crown had the duchy in right of the Crown.' See also the Duchy of Lancaster website, n 111, who state that the duchy is 'held in trust for the sovereign, and is used to provide income for the use of the British monarch.'The surplus in 2010 was £ 13.3m.
Thus, the palatinate had a:  Court of Chancery (also called the Lancaster Palatine Court); 84  Court of Exchequer; 85 76 Forfeitures for treason and felonies were abolished by the Forfeiture Act 1870. 77Coke, n 22, vol 4, p 204. See also Blackstone, n 20, vol 1, p 113 and Baines, n 9, ch 6. 78 Ibid, p 210 'This county palatine was the youngest brother, and yet best beloved of all other, for it had more honours, manors and lands, annexed unto it, than any of the rest, by the house of Lancaster, and by H 8 [Henry VIII, 1509-47] and queen Mary [1553-8], albeit they were descended also of the house of York, viz from Eliz. the eldest daughter of E 4 [i.e .Elizabeth of York, 1466-1503]' (spelling modernised).
83See generally, Baines, n 9, p 90 et seq.84Ibid,p90.'The[court]exercisesaconcurrentjurisdictionwith the Chancery Division of the High Court in all matters of equity within the county palatine…' It was based in Preston.There was an appeal from this court to the Duchy Court, see Baines, n 9, p 68. See also p 154. See also Halsbury, n 14, para 854 'the Court of Chancery of the County Palatine of Lancaster…exercised the same powers and jurisdiction as the High Court of Justice in its Chancery Division.'85Baines,n9, p 90. Also, p 60 'In…(1390) he [John of Gaunt] obtained a further confirmation of the privileges of his duchy of Lancaster, in the appointment of a chancery court there, with the power to issue writs under his own seal, likewise an exchequer, with barons and other necessary officers, with power to make justices itinerant for the pleas of the forest etc.'  Court of Common Pleas which dealt with civil suits;86 Passage signifies money paid for crossing a river or (as it is sometimes used) for crossing the sea.It is over water, as way is over land; see 4 Edw 3 cap 8[1331].' Ewage (acquage) was also used to describe a toll for passage across water.OED (ewage) 'ewagium, the same with acquage which is a toll paid for water passage.'SeealsoUA Forbes & HJW Coulson, The Law Relating to Waters, Sea, Tidal and Inland (Sweet & Maxwell, 2 nd ed, 1902), pp 501-15. 104D, n 99 (payage) 'Payage is an obsolete version of peage, toll.' Peage or pedage a 'toll paid for passing through a place or country.'HTRiley,Munimenta Gildhallae Londoniensis (Rolls Series, 1859-62), Liber Custumarum, pt 2, p 819 'a toll due by custom for having a way through the royal forests...sometimes called 'chrminage' or 'chimmage.'Cf.OED, n 99 (chiminage)(a toll for passing through a place or country).105OED,n 99 (lastage) 'A toll payable by traders attending fairs and markets.'JG Pease & H Chitty, Treatise on the Law of Markets and Fairs (London, Knight & Co, 1899) p 56 'Lastage or Lestage: a toll paid for liberty for persons to carry their goods up and down to markets and fairs.'The 'last' (from the Anglo-Saxon, last, a burden) was a measure by which several kinds of solid goods were sold.See Norton, n 103, p 287.It is also spelt 'lestage.'However, lastage (lestage) was also a port toll (duty).OED, n 98 (lastage) a 'payment for liberty to load a ship; a port duty.' See also Riley, n 104 (Munimenta, Liber Custumarum, pt 2), pp 737, 811-2.F Hargrave (ed), M Hale, A Treatise relative to the Maritime Law of England in Three Parts (London, 1787, rep Gale EEBO Print eds), p 75 'lestage, that were port duties of goods unladen.' See also Seyer, n 103, p 6 (lastage is what we now call porterage).
Hardy, n 8, p 22. 102 Also spelt paviage.OED n 99 (pavage) 'A tax or toll towards the paving of highways and streets.' See also C Welch, History of the Worshipful Company of Paviors (published by the same, 1909). 103OED, n 99 (passage).'A charge or custom levied upon passengers, a toll' Webb's Case (1612) 8 Coke's Reports 46b (77 ER 541) ('passagium, that is properly a ferry for the passage of men and cattle over water, for which the owner has a toll.').See also G Norton, Commentaries on the History, Constitution & Chartered Franchises of the City of London (London, Longmans, 1869), p 287. S Seyer, The Charters and Letters Patent granted by the Kings and Queens of England to the Town and City of Bristol (JM Gutch, Bristol, 1812), pp 1-2 ' Halsbury, n 14, vol 10, para 857 'The Court of the Duchy Chamber of Lancaster…had jurisdiction concerning equities relating to land held of the Queen in right of the duchy…The court has never been dissolved, but has not sat for a long period.'Baines(writing in 1888), n 9, p 90 noted that this court 'has been for many years practically obsolete, but not abolished.It used to be a court of appeal for the chancery of the county palatine, but now all appeals from the latter go to the Court of Appeal as from 1873 (see Judicature Act 1873, s 18).It has a nominal jurisdiction in reference to the estates of the duchy, which be in various counties, and are generally called 'Duchy Liberties.'139Ibid.See also Blackstone, n 20, vol 3, p 78 and Somerville, n 6 (second article), p 63.140This was the 3 rd ed.Noted by Somerville, n 10, vol 1, p xiv who also notes 'There is a little confusion in it between the duchy court and the chancery court of Lancaster, and this is continued in effect by Coke, who in his Fourth Institute (1 st edn, 1644) [see Coke, n 22, vol 4, p 206] discusses the procedure and privileges of the county palatine of Lancaster under the head of the court of the duchy chamber at See also Baines, n 9, p 68. Privileges of wards and liveries attached to the duchy were abolished in 1660.12CarII.See also Baines, n 9, pp 68 & 74 and Somerville, n 10, vol 2, p 37.143Halsbury, n 14, vol 10, para 856 'The Great Barmote Courts and Small Barmote Courts of the High Peak are ancient courts with jurisdiction relating to lead mining rights and civil pleas relating to those rights in parts of Derbyshire…The Barmote courts of Wirksworth and adjacent liberties are similar to those of the High Peak…'.See also vol 31, paras 588-9.144Ibid,vol 8(2), para 538 'The Attorney General of the Duchy of Lancaster is appointed by patent under the seal of the Duchy of Lancaster to represent the interests of the Crown in respect of the duchy.' 14 Jul 1364 Charter of 7 May 1342 renewed in favour of John, Duke of Lancaster and Blanche his wide viz (a) acquittance of tolls; (b) return of writs and summons of the exchequer; (c) attachment of the pleas of the Crown; (d) chattels of felons and fugitives; (e) fines and amercements, forfeited issues, forfeitures etc. Limitation of the grant to the lands of the Earl of Lancaster on 7 May 1342. 179 Jun 1372 Grant of certain estates to the Duke of Lancaster in exchange for the earldom of Richmond. 180 Feb 1377 Grant to the Duke of Lancaster for life of: (a) court of chancery, chancellor, justices, cognizance of pleas and other jura regalia in the county of Lancaster whichpertain to a count palatine as freely as the Earl of Chester enjoyed the same in the county of Chester. 181e Duke to send knights of the shire and burgesses to serve in Parliament and to appoint collectors of parliamentary taxes and subsidies. 182Jun 1377 Grant that the Duke of Lancaster may retain the towns of Grinstead (parcel of the Manor of Marsfield), Seaford (parcel of the castle of leucats of Pevensey)and Laughton-in-le-Morthen (parcel of the honour of Tickhill) with the other estates given to him in exchange for the earldom of Richmond and enjoy therein certainliberties.General words in the grant of 28 February 1377 of a county palatine expressed on certainpoints, the general words declared to embrace the powers exercised by the Duke of Lancaster in virtue thereof, viz to have his exchequer and barons thereof in the county palatine and the appointment of justices of the forest except in pleas arising where the Crown is a party.185 viz (a) knight's fees; (b) advowsons; (c) wardships; (d) marriages; (e) escheats; (f) chases; (g) parks; (h) warrens; (i) woods; (j) fairs; (k) markets; (l) waters; (m) ways; (n) fisheries, (o) commons; (p) assarts; (q) wastes;(r) purprestures; (s) courts, (t) views of frankpledge; (u) hundred; (v) wapentakes, (w) wreck; (x) waif ; (y) estray; (z) fines and amercements; (aa) forfeited issues and forfeitures in any of the king's courts; (bb) chattels of felons and fugitives; (cc) return and execution of writs and summons of the exchequer; (dd) fines and amercements of sheriffs and bailiffs of liberties for negligence.