Watching of Scary TV Shows by Children and Youth, Identification With Characters, and Resulting Fears and Nightmares

The identification of children and adolescents with characters from the television programs they watch is not limited to the time when they view the program. The connection with the characters continues across the use of various digital means and in various realms of the children’s lives. The purpose of the present study was to examine the connections between patterns of use of various media, the degree of identification with characters from the programs watched, and the fears and nightmares experienced by the children after watching these programs. This is a mixed-method study. Two hundred ninety-six Israeli children and adolescents participated in the study; 45 children and adolescents among those who completed questionnaires were interviewed. The data were collected in 2017-2018. The data revealed that negative identification with the show characters was higher among children than in adolescents. Positive identification with the characters was higher among viewers of scary programs, among those who suffered from nightmares and fears, and among those who perceived the characters and plot as realistic. It was found that interest in programs involving tension, drama, and action increases the risk of nightmares and fears after watching these programs.


Introduction
The identification of children and adolescents with characters from the television programs they watch is not limited to the time of viewing the shows. Children and adolescents search the Internet for content related to the programs and the characters, join interest groups that discuss television programs and characters on social networks, and encounter these characters in other areas, such as marketed products related to television shows and characters, costumes of characters, items of clothing similar to those worn be the characters, etc. Characters from television shows are featured on various digital media and in different areas of the children's lives. In this study we examined the connections between patterns of use of various media, the degree of identification with characters from the programs watched, and the fears and nightmares that follow the watching of these programs.

The Media: A Part of the Children and Youth Environment
Children today are exposed to a large selection of sources and channels of information. Many studies have shown that the media is playing an increasingly important role in children's lives (Byron, 2008;Livingstone et al., 2012;Livingstone et al., 2014;Ofcom, 2006;Taylor & Kitter, 2010;Zilka, 2014Zilka, , 2016aZilka, , 2016b. Researchers (Atwal et al., 2003;Comstock & Scharrer, 2007;Gatfield & Millwood-Hargrave, 2003;Holbert & Stephenson, 2003;Livingstone, 2008Livingstone, , 2007Millwood-Hargrave, 2007;Millwood-Hargrave & Livingstone, 2006, 2009 have argued that because the media is part of our living environment, its influence in shaping the personality of a child lies in its interaction with other environmental factors, which affect each other in different ways. Researchers (Leung, 2013;McQuail, 2010;West & Turner, 2007;Zilka, 2014Zilka, , 2017Zilka, , 2018aZilka, , 2018bZilka, , 2018c have found that media consumers are rational, thinking persons who choose from a variety of media, decide to what they will be exposed, and shape their consumption habits according to their needs. For example, when children watch a program seeped in violence, it is necessary to find out what is the children's need, what is their reason for viewing violent content. The children must be offered an alternative option to the partial and at times negative solution they discover in the various media. Extensive viewing of violent content may create the impression in children that the world is violent and thus exacerbate their problem.

The Connection Between Watching TV Shows and Violence
Researchers (Bandura, 1965;Cline et al., 1973;Huesmann, Moise-Titus et al., 2003;Millwood-Hargrave & Livingstone, 2006, 2009 investigated the relationship between TV viewing and violence through the lens of the desensitization theory (2003). Desensitization theory argues that repeated exposure to violence may suppress the natural negative responses to violence, and viewers may lose their natural sensitivity to violence and their capacity for empathy. Viewing can lead to identification with violent characters, justification of the violent acts of characters, and a perception of violent scenarios as real. Watching violence increases fears and nightmares in viewers, and may distort the construction of reality by children and adolescents. Studies have attempted to find a causal link between viewing violent content and subsequent aggression. Researchers in these studies focused on three harmful effects of violence on television: increased anti-social behavior, including emulated aggression seen on TV or negative interactions with others; reduction of sensitivity to violence and perception of violent behavior as normative and socially acceptable; and increasing the viewers' fear of becoming victims of violence. The abovementioned researchers found a connection between watching violence on TV programs and accepting violent behavior in others, as well as an exaggerated perception of the rate of violence in society. No causal relation has been established, however, between viewing of violence in TV programs and changes in behavior and perception. Researchers (Bandura, 1965;Cline et al., 1973;Huesmann et al., 2003;Millwood-Hargrave & Livingstone, 2006, 2009 agree that viewing violence in TV programs is one of many factors that contribute to aggression, antisocial attitudes, and violence in children and adolescents. It also transpires that the effect of violence on viewers is related to the context in which it is presented, and the identification of the viewer with a character. In addition, significant differences were found between viewing audiences, stemming from their age, gender, marital status, and more.
This study examined the connections between negative and positive identification with the characters, criticism of the characters, self-image and anger reaction, background characteristics, habits, preferences, and types of programs, key factors affecting interest in programs, and patterns of viewing scary programs.
The research question was: What characterizes the connections between patterns of use of various media, watching scary TV programs, identifying with characters, and fears and nightmares resulting from watching, in children and adolescents?

Method
This was a mixed-method study. Forty-five of the participating children and adolescents who completed questionnaires were interviewed. Data collection was carried out in 2017-2018. Analysis of the statistical data is based on Beavers, Lounsbury, Richards, Huck, Skolits, and Esquivel (2013), and on Brown (2009). The content analysis is based on Adler and Adler (2008), Atkinson and Delamont (2006), and Hammersley (2008).

Sample
After organizing and eliminating records in which one or more of the data items were missing, a sample of 296 respondents was obtained: 57% girls and 43% boys; 30.7% of the respondents were children aged 12 or younger, and the remaining 69% were adolescents. The socioeconomic situation of 60.8% of the respondents was average or worse; the rest (39.2%) reported that their socioeconomic situation was better than average. -The Rogers self-image questionnaire (1967). The questionnaire is composed of ten statements, and respondents rank the appropriate answer on a 4-poiont scale ranging from 1=Don't agree at all to 4=Agree very much. For example: Overall, I am satisfied with myself. Sometimes I think I'm not good at all. I feel that I have some good qualities. I would like to have more self-respect. I adopt a positive attitude toward myself. Average = 3.05, standard deviation = 0.44, reliability (Cronbach α) = 0.81.
-Questionnaire about attitudes toward identification with characters, based on the questionnaire by Block (1995). The questionnaire includes 51 statements divided into three parts (negative identification, positive identification, and attitudes toward the character). Items were rated on a 6-point scale ranging from 1=Not at all to 6=Yes, quite). Principal factor analysis with Varimax rotation of the solution, followed by ordering of the solution (Brown, 2009;Beavers et al., 2013), indicated the presence of three factors. The characters on the TV show I love behave like my friends; When the characters on the TV show that I love are sad, I'm also sad; When the characters on the TV show that I love are excited, I'm also excited.
-Questionnaire for measuring aggressive tendencies (FOA), based on the questionnaires of Verona, Sadeh, Case, Reed, and Bhattacharjee (2008). The questionnaire included 10 items reported by the child relating to the extent of the child's involvement in various types of aggression. Items were rated on a 6-point scale, ranging from 1 = not at all to 6 = yes, quite); average = 2.51, standard deviation = 1.24, reliability (Cronbach α) = 0.87. For example: When I'm nervous or angry at other people, I start hitting; I threaten them physically; I hit, kick, or push others; I don't let them express their opinions; I come down on them; I say mean things to them; I ruin their friendship with other people; I worry that they won't be in my group of friends; I'm friendly with someone else; I don't help them when they need my help.
-Recreational habits questionnaire based on Ofcom: Office of Communications (2010) and Livingstone et al. (2012). Respondents were asked to specify how much time they devote to different types of activities throughout the week. Their answers were given relative to an ordinal answer scale, which for the purpose of analysis was converted into an ordinal answer scale in which the responses represent the middle of the appropriate categories. Viewing habits were rated at a total of 1 to 5 hours, 6-10 hours, 11-15 hours, over 15 hours; 9 items: how many hours per week you spend usually: with friends after school; in after-school classes; watching TV; watching YouTube; watching movies and shows on your computer; surfing the Internet; using social networks; reading a book; talking on the phone. For the purpose of analysis, the types of recreation of the respondents were divided into three categories, which were calculated as the average of the hours in each type of recreation. makes you keep watching scary programs? Do you feel that the characters and plot in the shows you are watching are life-like, realistic? List the names of the scary programs you are watching.
-Personal interviews: A total of 45 children and adolescents were interviewed. Interviewees were asked questions to clarify the findings, to help us understand the reasons behind the findings. The semi-structured interviews covered all the subjects included in the research topics, but the order of questions was determined by the dynamics of the interview. The interviewees wanted to share events they lived through, both positive and negative experiences, and some of them provided detailed descriptions.

Findings
Below we present the findings on the correlations between media usage patterns, positive and negative identification with the characters, criticism of the characters, self-image and sense of anger, background characteristics, entertainment habits, and the use of media in all its forms. The preference for types of TV programming is a main factor in interest in programs and in children's and adolescents' patterns of viewing frightening programs.

Favorite TV Genre
The participants were asked to indicate which TV genre they liked to watch. Figure 1 presents the rates of viewing of the various programs by children and adolescents, according to the type of programs that the participants noted.  Figure 2. Rates of children's and adolescents' interest in programs, by reason of interest Figure 2 shows that 16% of respondents indicated that the plot was what makes them interested in the programs they like to watch; 15% watch programs because of interest in a character/actor; 17% watch programs because of interest in drama, suspense, or action; 25% watch the show because of its humor-this is the most significant factor.

Watching Scary Programs
The patterns of watching scary programs were examined based on qualitative analysis of the responses. Respondents' answers to the question "Do you usually watch scary TV shows? Explain" revealed four levels of reference that distinguish between respondents who indicated -not at all‖ (57.9%) and those who do not normally watch such programs (6.9%), watch sometimes (7.6%), or always (27.6%). For the purpose of this analysis, however, the responses were grouped into two categories that distinguish between those who watch scary movies (42.1%) and those who do not (57.9%).

Nightmares and the Perception of Characters and Plot as Realistic in Scary Shows
The qualitative answers of the participants to the question "Are these programs causing you nightmares and fears? Explain‖ were coded into three levels. The survey found that 76.4% reported that watching scary programs did not cause them nightmares or fears, 4.4% reported that this type of programming sometimes caused nightmares and fears, and 19.2% reported that they regularly had nightmares or fears as a result of such viewing. For the purpose of analysis, the responses were grouped into two categories that distinguish between those for whom watching scary films causes nightmares and fears (23.6%) and those for whom it does not (76.4%).
Similarly, the participants' qualitative responses to the question "Do you feel that the characters and plot in the programs you are watching are real, realistic?" were coded into three levels, which distinguish between participants who do not believe that the characters and plot are realistic (45.2%); those who believe that the characters and the plot are partially realistic (21.2%); and those who completely believe that the characters and the plot are realistic (33.6%). For the purpose of analysis, the responses were grouped into two categories that distinguish between those who believe that the characters and the plot in the scary programs are realistic (54.8%) and those who do not (45.2%).

Connections Between Variables
A multivariable regression analysis (MANOVA) was conducted to examine the relationship between dependent and explanatory variables: self-image, negative and positive identification with the characters, criticism of the characters, self-image and anger response to background characteristics, habits, preferences and types of programs, and the main factor for interest in programs, and viewing patterns of scary shows (Table 3). The reference group comprises girls with a strong socioeconomic background.  Negative identification with the characters: -The model is significant and explains about 36% of the variance of the variable.
-Children (regardless of their socioeconomic situation), boys from a strong socioeconomic background, and girls with a low/average socioeconomic background demonstrated higher levels of negative identification with the characters than did adolescent girls from a strong socioeconomic background.
-Negative identification decreases with the increase in frequency of meeting with friends and with increased reading of books by respondents. At the same time, the negative identification with the characters increases with the amount of time devoted to digital communication.
-Negative identification with the characters is lower in respondents who like to watch reality shows and cartoon series.
-Negative identification is lower in respondents who are interested in current affairs and science.
-Viewing scary programs, and respectively, reports of nightmares and fears, and of perception of characters and plots as realistic, do not affect the degree of negative identification with the characters.
Positive identification and perception of the characters' contribution: -The model is significant and explains about 46% of the variance of the variable.
-Children from low/average socioeconomic backgrounds, boys from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and girls (regardless of their socioeconomic background) showed a higher level of positive identification with the characters in the show than did girls from strong socioeconomic background.
-Positive identification increases with the amount of time spent on meeting friends and on digital communication.
-The level of positive identification is higher for respondents who like to watch youth drama series in Hebrew, adult drama series in Hebrew, reality shows, American comedies, American drama series, and cartoons.
-Positive identification with the characters is higher for respondents who are interested in the characters/actors in the show and for respondents who are interested in humor.
-The level of positive identification with the characters is higher for respondents who watch scary programs, and it is higher for those who suffer from nightmares and fears and for those who perceive the characters and plots as realistic.

Criticism of the characters:
-The model is significant and explains about 21% of the variance of the variable.
-Boys and girls from a strong socioeconomic background demonstrated a higher level of criticism of the characters than did adolescent girls from a strong socioeconomic background.
-The level of criticism does not depend on the respondents' habits.
-The level of criticism of the characters is lower for those who prefer to watch drama series for youths in Hebrew, Israeli comedies, American comedies, and cartoons.
-The level of criticism of the characters is higher for those whose main concern is humor.
-The level of criticism of the characters is not affected by watching scary programs, by suffering from nightmares and fears, or by a realistic perception of the plots and characters. Self-esteem: -The model is significant and explains about 36% of the variance of the variable.
-Adolescent boys from a low/average socioeconomic background demonstrated lower self-image than did adolescent girls from a strong socioeconomic background.
-Self-image does not depend on the habits of the respondents.
-Program viewing preferences did not affect self-image, except that the self-image of respondents who do not watch television was found to be lower.
-The self-image of respondents who are interested in current events and science is lower. -The self-image of respondents who suffer from nightmares and fears is lower, as is the self-image of those who perceive the characters and plots in scary shows as realistic.
Reactions in a state of anger: -The model is significant and explains about 33% of the variance of the variable.
-Children from a strong socioeconomic background and adolescent boys (regardless of their socioeconomic background) showed more angry reactions than did adolescent girls coming from a strong socioeconomic background.
-There quantity of angry reactions increases with the increase in the use of digital communication, and there are fewer angry reactions as the time devoted to reading increases.
-Program viewing preferences did not affect angry reactions.
-There are fewer angry reactions by respondents interested in the plot and by those interested in current affairs and science.
-There are more angry reactions by respondents who watch scary programs and by those who reported suffering from nightmares and fears. -There is a positive correlation between anger reaction and negative identification with the characters (r = .371, p < .01), the level of positive identification with the characters (r = .259, p < .01), and the level of criticism of the characters (r = .167, p < .01).
-No significant correlations were found between the self-image and other research variables.

Discussion
In this study we explored the connections between patterns of usage of various media, watching scary TV programs, identification with characters, and fears and nightmares as a result of watching the shows, in children and adolescents. The research question was: What characterizes the connections between patterns of use of various media, watching scary TV programs, identifying with characters, and fears and nightmares resulting from watching, in children and adolescents?
Instructive findings concern the connections between patterns of usage of the various media, negative and positive identification with the characters, criticism of the characters, self-image, and feelings of anger, in relation to the background characteristics, entertainment habits, and the usage of various media on one hand, and the preference for types of TV shows and the main factor affecting the interest in programs and patterns of viewing scary shows by children and adolescents on the other.
Negative identification with the characters. Negative identification refers to violent behavior of the character, damage to other characters, threats, etc. We found that negative identification with the characters is higher in children than in adolescents. The negative identification with the characters increases with the amount of time devoted to digital communication. At the same time, the negative identification decreases as the frequency of meetings with friends and the time devoted to reading books increase. The findings revealed that the negative identification is lower in respondents who are interested in current affairs and in science. The findings of this study corroborate previous findings (Arifinda & Hastuti, 2016;Lopez et al., 2006) (Anderson & Bushman, 2001;Boxer et al., 2009;Martins & Wilson, 2012;Selah-Shayowits, 2006). Based on the findings of this and previous studies, it is recommended to encourage children to participate in social gatherings and to watch television programs without extensive violence.
Positive identification and perception of the characters' contribution. Positive identification refers to the desire of the viewer to be like the character, to be a friend of the character, when the viewer feels that the character is sociable, and that the character's behavior contributes to a positive atmosphere in the show. Positive identification increases with the amount of time spent meeting with friends. Respondents who like to watch drama series for youths, adult drama series, reality shows, comedies, humor, and cartoons demonstrated a higher level of positive identification. The level of positive identification with the characters was higher in respondents who watch scary shows, in those who suffer from nightmares and fears, and in those who perceive the characters and plots as realistic. Researchers (Bandura, 1971(Bandura, , 1986(Bandura, , 2001Cole & Leeds, 1999;Hough & Erwin, 2010;Livingston & Das, 2010;Morgan & Shanahan, 2010;Rideout et al., 2010;Rome, 2018;Vandewater et al., 2006;Wilson, 2011;Zilka, 2014) found that television presents a wide variety of role models and offers children and adolescents an opportunity to check and compare alternate identities in their imagination. In this way, it exposes children to a variety of characters as possible role models whom they would be unlikely to meet face to face. The mechanism of identification with TV characters is part of the process in which children can examine the behaviors of characters, choose behaviors, and integrate them into their lives.
Criticism of the characters. The level of criticism of the characters was found to be lower in respondents who prefer to watch drama series for youths, comedies, and cartoons. The level of criticism of the characters was not affected by watching scary shows, by nightmares or fears, or by a realistic perception of the plots and characters.

Nightmares and fears.
We found that about a quarter of the respondents reported that viewing scary shows caused them nightmares and fears. It transpired that interest in suspense, drama, and action programs increases the chance of nightmares and fears after watching scary shows. In general, the percentage of girls to whom scary shows cause nightmares and fears was higher than that of boys, and higher among children than among adolescents. The self-image of those suffering from nightmares and fears was lower than that of the others, as was the self-image of respondents who perceive the characters and plots in scary shows as realistic. We also found that angry reactions were more common in those who watched scary shows and in those who had nightmares and fears. A positive correlation was revealed between anger reaction and the level of negative identification with the characters (r = .371, p < .01), the positive level of positive identification with them (r = .259, p < .01), and the level of criticism of the characters (r = .167, p < .01). About one-third of respondents who watch scary programs continue to watch out of interest, and a similar percentage watch them because of the suspense and action associated with these programs, or because of the fun and pleasure involved in watching. Thirteen percent of the respondents explained that they continue to watch because of fear, and about 7% do not continue (or at least prefer not to continue watching). We found a connection between fears and nightmares, and low self-image and anger, which affects the mental wellbeing of the children and adolescents. Researchers (Bandura, 1965;Cline et al., 1973;Huesmann et al., 2003;Millwood-Hargrave & Livingstone, 2006, 2009 found that watching violence increases the fears and nightmares of the viewers and may distort the perception of reality in children and adolescents. It should be noted, however, that the choice of TV characters to identify with is not only a function of the characters' traits but also of viewers'. Eyal and Rubin (2010) found that violent adolescents tended to identify with characters perceived as violent.
The identification of children with TV characters does not occur in a social void; television programs are part of the life environment of children and adolescents, and their influence on the shaping personality and identity of the latter is affected by other environmental factors.

Implications
Identification with TV characters enables learning about negative and positive behaviors. It should be remembered that not every character causes identification, and without identification, the chance of adoption and imitation of the character's behavior is small. The choice of identification with television characters is not only a function of character traits but also of the characteristics of the viewer of the show. Apart from the immediate behavioral effects of identification with television characters, watching programs involves psychological processes that have immediate and long-term effects on identity formation.

Future Studies
In this study we explored the connections between patterns of usage of a variety of media and the degree of identification with characters in the show, and the fears and nightmares resulting from watching these programs. More studies should examine the relationship between TV viewing and fears and nightmares in children and adolescents, because fears and nightmares affect their wellbeing.