Coffee Production and Geographical Indications (GI): An Analysis of the World Panorama and the Brazilian Reality

Coffee cultivation is of great importance in the world economy. Due to consumers' demand for products with quality and geographic certification, the topic is relevant. The research objective is to portray the international and Brazilian scenario of the coffee production chain, based on production and Geographical Indications (GIs) for the product. The research is classified as exploratory and descriptive in relation to the approach


Introduction
The coffee tree is an evergreen plant that has grown in tropical and subtropical regions. One hundred and twentyfour coffee species have already been identified (Davis et al., 2011), but the two main ones commercialized worldwide are: Coffea arabica (arabica) e Coffea canephora (robusta). These species differ in terms of agronomic, biochemical, and sensory aspects of the grain, the market, and the use of their products (Ferrão et al., 2019).
This deregulation led to a new trend, the appreciation of products with peculiar attributes, both in terms of tangible and intangible aspects (Zylbersztajn et al., 2001). Modernization in coffee production systems and the adoption of innovative techniques had to be adopted based on efficient and quality production (Carvalho et al, 2020). Thus, coffees with superior quality started to have more attractive prices in both national and international market (Carvalho et al., 2011).
With more demanding consumers, coffee producers had to increase the added value of their product, with the production of special coffees with quality and geographic certifications, new ways of selling the drink, and greater sensitivity regarding environmental sustainability (Borrella et al., 2015;Volsi et al., 2019) and social concern, such as conditions of labor used in production (Zylbersztajn et al., 2001).
Geographical Indications (GIs) seek to distinguish the geographical origin of a particular product or service (Ribeiro et al., 2020;Silva et al., 2022). They provide recognition and confidence about the origin of the product, standardization of production, and the possibility of inserting the territory in commercial competitiveness (Caldas et al., 2017).
GI in Brazil is recognized by the Industrial Property Law (Law nº 9.279,1996) (Valente et al., 2012) and standardized by the Brazilian National Institute of Industrial Property (INPI) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply (MAPA) (Caldas, 2013). INPI is the responsible agent for analyzing the pertinence of the indication and carrying out the legal registration of GI (Law nº 9.279,1996) and MAPA encourages GI activities and actions for agricultural products (Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food Supply [MAPA], 2017).
At the international level, GI is recognized by the TRIPS Agreement (Valente et al., 2012) and regulated by the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) (Caldas, 2013).
On December 6, 2022, 126 GIs were registered for coffee in the world (Organization for an International Geographical Indications Network -ORIGIN, 2022a). Coffee production represented, in the 2021/2022 harvest, 167,134 million bags (60 kg). It is important to highlight that Brazil is the largest coffee producer in the world (USDA, 2022).
Given the importance of coffee cultivation for the world and Brazilian economy, this work addresses the world and Brazilian panorama of coffee production, relating it to climatic and fertilization conditions. It also considers how GIs for coffees are being protected worldwide, whether sui generis system or trademarks (registered, collective or certification marks). Therefore, the research aims to answer the following question: How can climatic and fertilization factors affect world coffee production? And how are most producing countries protecting their coffee GIs?
Thus, the research aims to portray international and Brazilian scenario of the coffee production chain, based on the measurement of production and GIs for this agricultural product.
The article is structured in six sections, in addition to the introduction. The second section describes the methodology used in the work. The third section discusses GIs, their origins, and legal instruments at international and Brazilian levels. The fourth section, results and discussions, discuss the world and Brazilian coffee scenario and GIs. Finally, the research conclusions.

Method
This research is classified as exploratory and descriptive in relation to the approach, and as bibliographical and documental in relation to the means of investigation. Bibliographical research allows a greater coverage of phenomena, it is supported by the contributions of several authors on the subject. Documentary research relies on material that have not yet received analytical treatment (Gil, 2012).
Information from different sources was used, such as books, dissertations, articles, reports, legislation, and institutional websites. Regarding the international and Brazilian panoramas for coffee and GIs, data from governmental and non-governmental bodies were used.
The research was divided into two phases. The first involved bibliographical research, prospected in the Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar databases, based on the keywords "Coffee" and "Geographical Indications", without temporal delimitation. It was carried out with the contribution of several authors and legislation on the GI theme, its origin, and its legal instruments.

Geographical Indications: Origins and International and Brazilian Legal
Although the use of the geographical name to indicate the quality of the product is outdated, the first intervention by the State regarding GI protection occurred in 1756 for Port Wine from Portugal (Cerdan et al., 2014).
Later, countries organized themselves to create a treaty that addressed other industrial property rights, and in March of 1883 the treaty of the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property was implemented (World Intellectual Property Organization [WIPO], 1998).
With insufficient protection for some of the signatory countries, a supplementary treaty was promoted to repress false indications of origin. In 1891, the Madrid Agreement was signed. The intention of the agreement was to guarantee a repression that produced more consistent effects against the use of misleading indications of origin. However, the number of countries that joined it was smaller than those that joined the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (Cerdan et al., 2014).
As both agreements did not advance in protecting GIs, in 1958 the Lisbon Agreement was created, with the aim of protecting Denominations of Origin and their international Registration. However, adherence to the agreement by countries was very low, making it ineffective (Campinos, 2008).
In 1994, the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) was approved. TRIPS is an agreement in which its members must protect or guarantee intellectual property in a minimum way possible and each one established the most effective forms of protection, not constituting an obstacle to trade. Some countries that adhered to it started creating and improving their internal legislation (Cerdan et al., 2014).
The article 22 of TRIPS Agreement defines a GI as a product originating in the territory of a member when a particular quality, reputation or other characteristic is attributable to its geographical origin (Decree Nº 1. 355,1994).
Brazil adhered to the TRIPS Agreement, through Decree Nº 1,355 of December 30, 1994. It occurred with the authorization of Law Nº 9,279 of May 14. 1996, known as the Industrial Property Law (IPL), which deals with the protection of industrial property rights.
IPL establishes the general rules for the recognition of GI in articles 176 to 182 and defines the modalities of GI as: Indication of Origin (IO) and Denomination of Origin (DO), to designate products and services (Law nº 9.279,1996).
The IO relates to the local name that has become known and the DO to the local name in which the characteristics or qualities are due to the geographic environment (Barbosa, 2003). In IO, what is important is the peculiarity with the quality of the product, whereas in DO, the physical, human, and cultural aspects of the environment where it was obtained or produced (Anjos, 2013).  Producers who have Brazilian Geographical Indications registered with INPI can use the seal on their product packing free of charge (INPI, 2021a). The purpose of the seal is to identify products and services with high quality and national reputation and contribute to promoting and valuing small businesses, the majority among GIs (SEBRAE, 2021).
Several countries recognize the GI as an element of distinction, identification, and excellence of products and legally protect it (Valente et al., 2012).
Regulation (EU) nº 1151/2012 specifies that in Protected Designations of Origin (PDO) all production steps must be carried out inside the delimited geographical area, and the emphasis of the product is on quality and typicality; in the case of Protected Geographical Indication (PGI), at least one step must take place inside the demarcated region and the emphasis of the product is on the link between its reputation and geographical origin (Cabral, 2019). This regulation brought the mandatory use of symbols on the labeling of products produced in the European Union commercialized under PDO or PGI ( Figure 2) (Soeiro, 2018).

World Coffee Scenario and Geographical Indications
In the 2021/22 harvest the world coffee production decreased by 5.2% compared to the 2020/21 harvest. This occurred because of the Brazil's low production of arabica coffee, as the country faced adverse weather conditions and the physiological effects of the negative biennial. The reduction was 12.4% for world production of arabica coffee, and as for robusta coffee, an increase of 4.5% (Table 1) (USDA, 2022).
For the 2022/23 crop, the total world coffee production is estimated at 175 million bags (60kg), representing an increase of 4.7% compared to the 2021/22 harvest (Table 1) (USDA, 2022). The reason for this increase is the estimative of greater production by Brazil, both due to the positive biennially of arabica coffee and the favorable climatic conditions in the robusta coffee producing regions (Brainer, 2022).  (2022) The world's largest coffee producers are Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia and Indonesia. The four countries together concentrate 67.8% of world production (USDA, 2022).
Brazil is the largest producer of arabica coffee and the second largest producer of robusta coffee, totaling 34.8% in the 2021/22 harvest. There was a 26.8% drop in Brazilian arabica coffee production, while robusta coffee production increased by 7.4% if compared to the 2020/21 harvest. For the 2022/23 harvest, an increase of 14% is estimated for arabica coffee and 5.06% for robusta (USDA, 2022).
Vietnam is the second largest producer of coffee in the world and largest producer of robusta coffee. For the 2021/22 harvest, production of robusta increased by 8.73% over the previous period. For the 2022/23 harvest, a drop in this production is expected, as a result of the reduction in use of fertilizers in coffee plantations by producers, due to rising prices (Brainer, 2022;USDA, 2022).
Colombia is the world's third largest producer of coffee and the second largest producer of arabica coffee. For the 2021/22 harvest, arabica production was reduced by 2.98% compared to the previous harvest. For the 2022/23 harvest, production should remain unaffected because producers have restricted the use of fertilizers in coffee plantations, as the country is dependent on imported fertilizers, which have risen in prices (Brainer, 2022;USDA, 2022).
Indonesia is the fourth country in the world coffee production and third producer of robusta coffee. For the 2021/22 harvest, production of robusta coffee reduced by 1.06%. For the 2022/23 harvest, an increase of 7.52% is estimated (USDA, 2022).
In a global market context, with consumers increasingly looking for unique quality products, GIs bring beneficial effects to producers, consumers and local communities (Barjolle et al., 2017;Cei et al., 2018;ORIGIN, 2022b).
Worldwide, GIs are regulated by sui generis or trademarks. In sui generis system, laws are specifically designed to protect GIs. The legal effect is established from the registration, which is mandatory. In this system, protection is against direct commercial use of the GI (word for word). In trademarks system, the protection of GIs safeguards the protection of geographic names by trademarks, collective marks and certification marks based on private initiative. In countries that adopt this legislation, producers must pay attention to the periodic renewal of brands (generally every ten years) (ORIGIN, 2022c).
According to information from the Organization for an International Geographical Indications Network (ORIGIN) (2022a), the total GIs in the world for the agricultural product coffee is a total of 126, with 56 GIs in Asia, 29 GIs in Central America, 27 GIs in South America, 9 GIs in North America and 5 GIs in Africa. The records were 108 GIs (sui generis), 16 GIs trademarks, 1 standard and labeling rules and 1 as others kind of records. Asia has all its GIs for coffee protected by the sui generis system. Central America has its GIs registered as follows: 23 GIs (sui generis), 4 GIs (brands), 1 standards and labeling rules and 1 as others kind of records. South America has 25 GIs (sui generis) and 2 GIs by brands. North America has 3 GIs (sui generis) and 6 GIs (brands) and Africa has 1 GI (sui generis) and 6 GIs (brands Indonesia is the country with the highest number of GIs (31) all by sui generis system (ORIGIN, 2022a). In the country, the Ministries of Justice, Agriculture, and Internal Affairs collaborate, since 2011, to promote the development of GIs. The State acts from the selection of candidate products for registration to the supervision of the implementation of the GI (Durand and Fournier, 2017).
In the United States, GIs are protected as registered, as collective or certification marks, registered by the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) or common law trademark (ORIGIN, 2022d).
In Kenya, GIs are registered as a collective or certification mark (Barjolle et al. 2017) by the African Regional Intellectual Property Organization (ARIPO), in accordance with the adoption of the Banjul Protocol on Trademarks (ORIGIN, 2022e). Salvador is registered as "of others", as it is a brand that represents the entire value chain of Salvadoran coffee cultivation and is part of the National Coffee Policy, whose objective is to benefit all actors in this production chain (Consejo Salvadoreño del Café, 2021).
In Panama, the protection of GIs is based on Law nº35, of May 10, 1996, which provides for Industrial Property (1996) (2000). This is applicable only if there are sufficiently arbitrary and distinctive in relation to the products or services to which they apply, and that they do not create confusion as to the origin, source, qualities or characteristics of the products or services for the codes of use of the marks.

Brazilian Coffee Scenario and Geographical Indications
In Brazil, two types of coffee are cultivated, arabica and robusta (conilon According to CONAB Coffee Crop Bulletin, a total production of 50,380.5 thousand bags (60kg) of processed coffees estimated for the 2022 harvest, representing an increase of 5.6% in relation to the 2021 harvest, which presented reduction in production due to several producing regions facing physiological effects of the negative biennial and having adverse climatic conditions (long periods of drought and frost) (CONAB, 2022), Arabica coffee production is estimated to be 32,410.2 thousand bags (60kg) processed, equivalent to 64.33% of total Brazilian production, indicating an increase of 3.1% if compared to the 2021 harvest. (  Robusta coffee (conilon) production is estimated at 17,970.3 thousand bags, equivalent to 36.67% of total Brazilian production, showing an increase of 10.3% when compared to the 2021 harvest (Table 3). This increase is due to the fact that there were good temperatures and adequate precipitation in crucial phenological stages of the crop (CONAB, 2022).  The largest coffee producing state in Brazil is Minas Gerais, with total production estimated at 22,033.1 thousand bags, in the 2022 harvest, accounting for 43.73% of Brazilian production. The second is Espírito Santo, with 16,575 thousand bags produced, representing 32.9% of production (CONAB, 2022).
Leadership in coffee production in Minas Gerais began in the 1970s (Santos et al., 2009). During this period, the IBC proposed the Plan for Renewal and Reinvigoration of Coffee Fields (PRRC), with the aim of expanding coffee production capacity, since the largest producing states at the time, São Paulo and Paraná, faced climatic adversities (frosts), compromising Brazilian production. With government subsidies for the installation and expansion of the productive area, coffee expansion took place in Minas Gerais state (Vale, 2014).
Since then, Minas Gerais has shown greater productivity in relation to other producing states, as a result of efforts made from research, technology transfer and the region's natural aptitude, related to climate conditions, terrain and soil varieties (Peregrini and Simões, 2011). Currently, the state accounts for 45,109 coffee growers spread across 451 municipalities and productive area of approximately 1.3 million hectares for coffee cultivation, being the main agricultural export product (Agência Minas, 2022).
The state of Espírito Santo occupies first place in the ranking of Brazilian production of conilon coffee and third in the production of arabica coffee. Coffee growing is the main agricultural activity of Espírito Santo, developed in almost all municipalities, with the participation of 131,000 producing families (State by the Capixaba Institute for Research, Technical Assistance and Rural Extension [INCAPER], 2022).
with the same goal as the previous program, but the focus was on contributing to sustainable development in the state (Frederico, 2013;INCAPER, 2022).
The coffee production chain is extremely important for the Brazilian economy, as it has been the country's export agenda for years. With more demanding consumers (Pires et al., 2003), who value the origin and quality of the product, producers have been improving their production to reach the new special coffee market (Giesbrecht et al., 2014). As a result, they are obtaining GI recognition for their products, which add value and identify the characteristics of the producing region (EMBRAPA, 2021).
Coffee is the largest agricultural product with GI records at the INPI. On December 6, 2022, 100 Brazilian Geographical Indication were registered at the INPI, with 24 DOs and 76 IOs. Of this total, 14 GIs refers to coffee, 9 IOs and 5 DOs. (INPI, 2022) (Chart 3).
The first GI recognized for coffee was in 2005, the IO Região do Cerrado Mineiro (IG990001). In 2014, the region was also recognized as the first Brazilian DO for coffee, DO Região do Cerrado Mineiro (IG2010111). Coffee produced in regions with GI have unique attributes in relation to the production method, quality from cultivation, harvest, appearance of the grain, origin, type of preparation, variety and built history (INPI, 2022

Conclusions
Given the importance of coffee cultivation for both the world and Brazilian economy, this study aimed to verify international and Brazilian scenario for the coffee cultivation, based on production and Geographical Indications of the product.
Brazil is the world's largest coffee producer and second in terms of quantities of GIs. The state of Minas Gerais is ranked first in coffee production and in the number of GIs for the product in the country, followed by Espírito Santo. According to Law nº 9.279/1996, GI is used to designate products and services, and uses the IO or DO species for this definition.
In the European Union, the concept of GI is defined by Regulation (EU) nº 1151/2012 as: IGP, in which at least one production step must take place in an outlined region and the emphasis of the product is on the link between its reputation and geographical origin; and PDO, in which all stages of fabrication of the product must be carried out within the delimited geographical area, and the emphasis is on quality and typicality.
It was observed that the two most commercialized types of coffee in the world are arabica and robusta. World production showed a reduction for the 2021/22 harvest, due to the low production of arabica coffee in Brazil, because of adverse weather conditions and physiological effects of the negative biennial. For the 2022/23 harvest, an increase is estimated, as Brazil had favorable weather conditions in robusta coffee producing regions and production is in positive biennial period.
Most coffee-producing countries follow specific legislation to protect GIs (sui generis system), but there are those that protect them though trademarks (registered, collective or certification marks).
In El Salvador, a brand represents the entire coffee value chain in the country and benefits all actors in that chain.
In Nicaragua, GI is registered in a unique way, as "Standard and labeling rules", through legislation and regulations on the commercialization of industrialized and green coffee.