Human Use-Pressure and Sustainable Wildlife Management in Burkina Faso: A Case Study of Bushmeat Hunting in Bobo-Dioulasso

Hunting is an important activity for the survival of local communities. However, unregulated hunting threatens the sustainability of wildlife and subsequently affects the same populations. This study investigated bushmeat hunting practices and their implications in wildlife sustainable management in Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina-Faso). A total of 226 hunters were interviewed, using a random sampling technique and a semi-structured questionnaire. It revealed four groups of hunters. Group 1 (32.57% of the sample) was young and commercial hunters from Bobo ethnic group with 42.15±6.01 as average age. Hunting is their main activity and they hunt all year round in groups using direct catch and hunting dogs. Group 2 (19.76%) prefers to hunt in the daytime and their products serve for diseases treatments through traditional medicine. Group 3 (29.06%) consists of the Mossi ethnic group with an average age of 58.92±3.69. They belong to the confederation of hunters called "Dozo". They are farmers with hunting as the secondary activity. They hunt at night with headlamps. Group 4 (18.60%), mainly Mossi with an average age of 63.06±7.19, hunts occasionally and respects the accredited hunting periods. The animals at the risk and most commonly used as bushmeat are Francolin, Porcupine, Cape hare, Buffalo, Nile monitor, Python, and Parrot. The locally threatened animals are respectively Ostrich, Roan antelope, Bat, Crocodile, and Striped hyena. Other animals are endangered and becoming increasingly rare (Lion, Elephant, Hippopotamus, and Warthog). Actions need to be taken by decision-makers and involve local communities for the sustainable management of wildlife in Bobo-Dioulasso.


Introduction
The harvest of wildlife is the primary source of meat and income for hundreds of millions of people in developing countries (Barrett, 2010;Brashares, Golden, Weinbaum, Barrett, & Okello, 2011). The harvest, sale, and consumption of wild animals comprise a trade valued at several billion dollars annually (Godoy, 2010). It is not surprising that the bushmeat trade is viewed by many as among the greatest threats to biodiversity, particularly in the tropic. Today, direct harvesting of wildlife by humans is deemed one of the greatest threats to the survival of species unique to tropical forest habitats, and a direct threat to global biodiversity (Wilkie et al., 2005;Bhupathy, Kumar, Thirumalainathan, Paramanandham, & Lemba, 2013). It is generally believed that unsustainable harvest can have catastrophic consequences for ecosystems and the services and livelihoods that they provide (Gandiwa, 2011;Decker et al., 2014). Even if the exact scale of illegal trade is uncertain, its impact is increasingly evident with the eradication of wildlife happening faster than habitat degradation (World Bank, 2005). Overhunting has been identified as one of the major threats to wildlife in many parts of the world (Aiyadurai, 2011;Harrison, 2011;Bhupathy et al., 2013), thus regulating hunting would be important for the conservation of wildlife and biodiversity.
A significant proportion of wildlife trade is illegal and contributes directly to the depletion of valuable natural resources through overexploitation and the introduction of commercially-valuable species beyond their natural ranges (Broad, Mulliken, Roe, & Oldfield, 2003). While it is impossible to estimate the value and the volume of the illegal trade in wild animals, the global estimate includes USD 15 billion (Broad et al., 2003) and USD 20 billion. To evolve sustainable hunting regulations, it is important to have baseline data on relevant socio-economic drivers and cultural practices, and on the species hunted, their population structures and harvest levels. The long-term is not relevant for the species that are most threatened by hunting, for which extinction within a decade is a real possibility (Nelleman & Newton, 2002). Therefore, strong intervention is required, where there is a need to reduce hunting levels. It is essential to understand not only the impact of hunting on wild populations but also the reason why certain species are hunted (Kaul, Hilaluddin, Jandrotia, & McGowan, 2004). In Burkina-Faso, hunting is still practiced by local communities without any control. It is necessary to assess the effect of these practices on wildlife sustainability. However, there are few studies, attempted to explain these questions and their effects on wildlife sustainability in Burkina-Faso. This study aims to investigate the hunter pressure and use of bushmeat and its implication on wildlife management, a case study of Bobo-Dioulasso.

Material and Methods
This study was carried out in six forests across the Bobo-Dioulasso municipality. They are Dinderesso, Kua, Bougouriba, Mangodara, Sara-Békuy, and Tuy Forest. A multi-stage sampling technique was used for the study. A total of 226 hunters were interviewed between August 2018 and March 2019. The hunters surveyed are the ones sampled and identified together with the staff of Environment and Wildlife Conservation Agency and the hunter's associations of Bobo-Dioulasso. However, in case of the absence of identified hunters in the concerned zone, the survey uses the Snowball sampling method by asking about other hunters around. An interview guide and a semi-structured questionnaire were used for data collection. The questions concerned the hunter's socio-cultural characteristics (nationality, ethnic group, principal activity, age of hunter, the proximity of hunting place, member of hunters association), the hunting methods and tools used, the form of hunting, wild animals hunted and final use of game species hunted. Apart from the animals listed by the hunters, some additional list of potentially threatened animals according to the literature was submitted to hunters as field guides during the interview.
The legal permissions were obtained from the national government representative office and local authorities. The fieldwork was conducted with the effective presence of the leader of hunters' confederation called "Dozo" as guidance. This research has been approved by the ethics committee of the Institute of Rural Development, Nazi Boni University, and also following Burkina's ethic policy. To get their voluntary participation, all hunter surveyed were informed about the aims of the study and how data would be used.
Added to descriptive statistics, a Multiple Factor Analysis (MFA) was used to represent the hunters in the form of projections on the planes defined by the first factorial axes. An Ascending Hierarchical Classification (AHC) method (from the holdings of the coordinates on the main factor axes) was used to group hunters according to their proximity to each other. Different typology groups correspond to the main "branches" of the tree. The data analysis was performed using R.2.15.2 software. Table 1 presents the characteristics of hunting activity in the study area. It shows that 82.47% of hunters do not respect the period dedicated to hunting in Bobo-Dioulasso (i.e. November-March), but hunt all-year-round. That increases the pressure on wildlife over the year. Hunting is the main activity for 57.88% of them, 28.12% as a secondary activity and 14% are just occasional hunters. Different methods are being employed for hunting, including trapping, which dominates with 38.82%, followed, respectively by the use of poison, fire, and chili (23.47%), and direct catch (18.47%). Only 10.59% of the respondents employed the use of hunting dogs. Non-gunpowder-based and gunpowder-based are used very rarely by 6.29% and 2.35% of the hunters, respectively. Concerning the destination of the products, 60.71% of the games hunted are sold to restaurants as bushmeat, 31.53% to traditional medicine practitioners for useful purposes. Only 7.76% of the games hunted are consumed by the hunters, implying that hunting is the main income activity of the hunters and cannot decrease without appropriate measures being taken, or by providing alternative means of livelihood for the affected people. Several forms of hunting have been identified, including day hunting, night hunting, group hunting, modern hunting, sport hunting (Table 1). Use as a traditional medicine 31.53

Typology of Hunters
Correlations between the variables allowed to retain a set of 16 active variables giving 48 terms. The cumulative contribution to the total inertia of the first three factorial axes retained was 65.30 %. The analysis allowed to distinguish four types of hunters in the municipality of Bobo-Dioulasso. The best graphical representation was provided by a projection is a plane defined by the factorial axes 1 and 2. Analysis of the distribution of hunter's types on the MFA and AHC charts revealed the characteristics of each type of hunter. Figure 1 shows the different groups of hunters.  This typology of hunter allows to understand the pressure exerted on wildlife according to the socio-cultural group of hunters, the hunting methods and tools, the game species regularly hunted, as well as the final use of the hunting products. Figure 2 shows the frequency of animals killed by hunters per week.  It can be noted that the young hunters are the most people to be included in negotiation for wildlife management because of their high pressure than other categories of age. The traditional knowledge and the use of animal hunted as medicine products are summarized in the appendix.

Discussion
The hunting activity in Bobo-Dioulasso as shown in this study is characterized by four groups of hunters using different tools and methods. It is different compared to the study of Salosa et al. (2014) who identified two types of hunting based on the tools and methods used: active hunting, which is a hunting technique using dogs and traditional weapons such as bow and arrow; and passive hunting is a hunting technique using traps or snares to catch the prey. Also, 60.71% of the game hunted is sold to restaurants as bushmeat. It is because people across the tropics rely on wildlife for food and income. However overhunting to satisfy this demand is causing the decline of many species; an issue is known as the wild meat crisis (Brashares et al., 2011). Several studies conclude that the increasing of bushmeat demands is due to consumers' preference such as taste preference (Smith, 2011), their price (Wilkie et al., 2005), availability of wild meat and substitutes (van Vliet, Nebesse, & Nasi, 2014), wealth (Godoy, 2010), income (Parry, Barlow, & Pereira, 2014), and market access (Chaves, Wilkied, Monroee, & Sieving, 2017). A total of 18 species of animals are commonly used by the people of the study area as bushmeat and also for traditional purposes. This number appears lower in comparison to other countries and shows the poor diversity of wildlife for hunting in the area. For example, Sutarno, Qayim, Muhadiono, Purwanto, & Zuhud, (2017) identified at least 55 species of animals commonly used by the Hatam people. In Burkina Faso, a significant part of wildlife harvest is used for traditional medicine purposes. Like plants, animal and their products also keep medicinal properties (Jaroli et al., 2010). It illustrates a common dilemma facing all fauna species through the soaring demand for their body parts for use in medicinal practices (Soewu & Ayodele, 2009). Different types of traditional use are found. According to Soewu (2006), preparation of fauna-based traditional medicines could be processed in different forms: a single, specific part of an animal; various combinations of different parts of the same animal species; and combinations of different parts of several animals, plants, minerals and other natural resources (Soewu, 2006). This situation of hunting products used as traditional medicine will remain for a long time because of poverty and the lack of hospitals in some rural areas.
That will subsequently affect the wildlife populations if any actions were taken.
Our results are similar to those obtained by Watkins, Poudyal, Caplenor, Buehler, & Applegate, (2018) in eastern wild turkey hunters revealing three types of hunters in terms of their hunting motivations: social harvesters, experiential harvesters, and social outdoor enthusiasts (Watkins et al., 2018). Moreover, the typology of hunters is very important for wildlife management as showed the study on grouse hunting regulations and hunter typologies in Norway who conclude that knowledge of typologies is valuable for tailoring local hunting regulations provided their actual distribution is identified at the appropriate scale (Hilde, Oddgeir, & Hans, 2013).
Some factors determine the continuous hunting activities by people. As found in this study, a group of young commercial hunters hunts as their main activity, all year round, and a large number of animals. It is necessary to follow this group and control them because the majority of the animal species hunted by these young hunters are Game species hunted [30-46[ [46-60[ [60-75[ jsd.ccsenet.org Journal of Sustainable Development Vol. 13, No. 3;2020 identified as animal species under anthropogenic pressure. To achieve that goal, according to Andersen, Kaltenborn, Pedersen, Storaas, & Solvang, (2009) and Hilde et al. (2013), there are only two means to regulate a game harvest: controlling the number of hunting permits and/or controlling the yield taken by each hunter. In terms of hunter satisfaction, this relates to the hunters' crowding tolerance and how the hunters rate the importance of bag size, respectively. If hunters comprise distinct typologies concerning crowding and bag size, game managers may use this knowledge to tailor hunting regulations more precisely.
Several authors worked on the sustainable management of wildlife and remarked that: at the household level, poverty forces people to pursue ecologically destructive economic options, often violating laws to survive (Himmelfarb, 2006;Kingazi, Mombo, & Shemdoe, 2008). At the national level, limited budgets reduce the capacity of governments to enforce conservation laws aimed at combating poaching and deforestation. The inadequate workforce in protected areas is one of the common constraints associated with poverty in many countries. But the communities can be actively involved in managing resources if their traditional practices are cherished because of their important role in thwarting depletion of resources, as a key incentive for conservation, their economic affordability, their reliability, and sustainability (Mgumia & Oba, 2002;Kideghesho, 2008). The wildlife conservation institution urgently needs to adopt a more effective, strategic approach to address contemporary social values relative to wildlife and changes in wild animal use and ecological conditions (Jacobson, Organ, Decker, Batcheller, & Carpenter, 2010). Such an approach must be grounded on principles that encompass the roles and responsibilities of all players in the wildlife conservation institution: elected and appointed officials, conservation professionals in government, non-government entities, and citizens (Smith, 2011;Wood, 2014). It has important implications for wildlife resource governance (Wood, 2014), particularly to ensuring natural resources for the benefit of current and future citizens.

Conclusion
The study focused on hunter's pressure on wildlife in Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso). Four groups of hunters were identified based on socio-cultural characteristics, the hunting methods, the species hunted and the destination of the hunting harvests. There are Commercial Hunters, Healer Hunters, Night Hunters, and Modern Hunters. It noted that the anthropogenic pressure is in effect over the year and varies, depending on whether the hunting objective is commercial (sale in restaurants as bushmeat), use for traditional medicine or arts and decorative purposes. The young commercial hunters are the most active by hunting a large number of species and the majority of the animal species hunted by these young hunters are identified as animal species under human activity pressure. The wildlife conservation institution in Burkina Faso needs to take action to reduce the decline of wild animal species. Hunting of animals under threats must first be prohibited in these forests. A key among them is to shift from operating under a framework focused predominantly on a narrow set of wildlife interests, to a socio-ecological paradigm and concomitant approach to wildlife conservation that embraces the interests and participation of a broader public. The four types of hunters identified in the present study can be actively involved in managing and conservation resources of wildlife in Burkina Faso.
Future studies must focus on commercial hunters, the economic impacts of hunting and wild product market access in Burkina Faso.
Appendix: Traditional use of animals and their products in Bobo-Dioulasso

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