Increasing Teacher Retention by Improving Self-Efficacy and Classroom Management Skills in Pre-Service Teachers

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Introduction
Teacher leaving and ensuing teacher shortages are critical issues in the United States.The Economic Policy Institute (Schmitt & deCourcy, 2022) argues that attrition and a lack of teachers "harms students, teachers, and the public education system as a whole… threatens students' ability to learn and reduces teachers' effectiveness, undermining the education system's goal of providing a sound education equitably to all children."Moreover, understand the problem of teacher retention as a failure to implement comprehensive teacher training programs that align with targeted skills PST will need as new teachers.This is a national problem with a local context, and faculty in schools of education have tremendous power and potential to address teacher retention by equipping PST with the skills needed for a strong teaching foundation.
The aim of this study was to decrease new teacher stress and improve job satisfaction by better preparing PST for the complexities of post-pandemic classroom teaching.The purpose of this longitudinal study was to determine if embedding evidence-based CM skills and strategies into the instructional methodology (IM) coursework of a PST program, augmented by structured applied learning opportunities, would improve the instructional experience (IE) and self-efficacy in CM.This mixed-methods study asked two questions.First, in what way will the incorporation of CM strategies into IM coursework improve PST self-efficacy in using these strategies?Second, in what way will applied learning opportunities within IM coursework improve self-efficacy in the use of CM strategies?

Teacher Retention and Its Impacts
The teacher shortage has been characterized as "unnerving" (Fortin & Fawcett, 2022) and "catastrophic" (Natanson, 2022).A decade ago, teacher retention (84.2%) was comparable to the national employment retention rate of 89.6% (U.S.Department of Labor, 2013), with 8.1% of teachers changing jobs and 7.7% leaving education annually (NCES, 2014).In 2021, the Rand Corporation (Steiner & Woo, 2021) reported that 25.0% of teachers were likely to leave their position at the end of the year.More disturbing, EdWeek research (Loewus, 2021) found that 54.0% of teachers were "somewhat" or "very likely" to leave within two years and a member survey by the NEA reported that 55% of teachers were considering leaving education in February 2022, up from 37% in August 2021 (Walker, 2022).Teachers leaving can cost districts as much as $20,000 per teacher (Carver-Thomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017).In 2015, the cost of teacher turnover nationwide was estimated to be $7.3 billion USD ($9.5 billion USD in 2023 dollars), not accounting for the increase in teacher turnover since 2015 (Carroll, 2015).
Teacher retention inevitably impacts instructional quality, program coherence, and, thus, student achievement (Sorensen & Ladd, 2020).NEA President Becky Pringle described teacher attrition as "a five-alarm crisis" that "threatens giving every child the support they need to thrive" and adds that these shortages are "preventing educators from giving their students the one-on-one attention they need (Walker, 2022).
The impact of principal effectiveness has been thoroughly researched as it impacts teacher retention (Brown & Wynn, 2009;Grissom & Bartanen, 2019a), but little attention is given to the role that teacher retention plays in principal mobility.In 2013, 11% of principals left education, with 32% leaving due to retirement (NCES, 2019).By 2022, that number increased to 16% (Diliberti & Schwartz, 2022).This is in part attributable to teacher turnover, which "destabilizes" the schools principals lead (DeMatthews et al., 2022).Pressure to improve student achievement, which is dependent on teacher efficacy and begins with teacher preparation, also drives principal attrition (Grissom & Bartanen, 2019b).
Finally, teacher retention is a critical equity issue.Bryant et al. (2023) report that 40% of teachers in low-income schools planned to leave compared to 25% in more affluent schools.Additionally, 38% of teachers in schools with 75% or more students of color planned to leave compared to 30% in White-majority schools (Bryant et al., 2023).Furthermore, the numbers of teachers who leave education are disproportionately higher for underrepresented groups, including Black (62%) and Hispanic/Latino (59%) teachers (Walker, 2022).
Clearly, teacher retention is a critical issue in education.If improving pay, benefits, work-life balance, or workplace wellness were effective strategies to address teacher attrition, the nation would not be facing an escalation of teacher shortages.This is a call to action for teacher preparation programs.

Stress, Retention, and Teacher Preparation Programs
The pandemic significantly increased teacher stress attributable to constant shifts between virtual and in-person learning and changes in personal responsibilities outside the classroom.In spring 2021, a year into the pandemic, 84.0% of teachers reported greater stress in school than before the pandemic (Loewus, 2021) and 91% of teachers in a NEA survey reported that "pandemic-related stress is a serious problem" (Walker, 2022).
Stress is a significant challenge for teacher retention; stress was almost twice as likely as low pay to influence their decision to leave teaching (Diliberti et al., 2021).Diliberti et al. (2021) reported that "stress was the most commonly reported reason for leaving the profession among both those teachers who left before and those teachers who left during the pandemic" (p.10).Stress was attributed to 43% of teacher leaving in 2022 (Schmitt & deCourcy, 2022).

Literature Review
Two literatures were reviewed with a lens of increasing self-efficacy for PST: a) embedding and expanding CM pedagogy in course content and instruction and b) supporting coursework with reflective practice.The second area of research examined applied learning opportunities, focusing on a) aligning coursework with applied learning opportunities and b) connecting theory to practice.Symons et al. (2020) argue that teacher preparation programs should be focused on blending theory and practice within IM coursework.Furthermore, PST must engage in a process of shared inquiry with professors, mentor teachers, and each other.

Course Content and Instruction
A qualitative study by Merç and Subaşı (2015) sought to gain a better understanding of the problems student teachers associate with CM and strategies they might use to manage these problems.Results indicated that the information PST learned in their IM coursework assisted them in handling CM issues, and that this knowledge, along with the opportunity to put it into practice, increased their self-efficacy and ability to manage their own classrooms.Flower et al. (2017) also studied the effectiveness of CM content in teacher preparation programs, suggesting that pre-service and novice teachers are often unprepared to effectively manage their classrooms, which disrupts both teaching and learning.The researchers found that few programs provided adequate CM pedagogy to prepare PST to work productively with today's students.They concluded that embedding more preventive CM strategies while tying theory to specific classroom situations is vital as it fosters preventive, not reactive, responses to challenging student behavior.They concluded that without such instructions, teachers will continue to feel ineffective, resulting in more school-related stress, which they link to student achievement.Sivri and Balci (2015) used the Classroom Management Self-Efficacy Scale, concluding that as PST beliefs about self-efficacy in CM increase, so does PST potential for the effective use of CM solutions; ultimately, self-efficacy was predicted to have an impact on student achievement.Additionally, the researchers argued that new teachers with low self-efficacy in CM are more likely to drop out of the teaching profession.
Finally, The New Teacher Project (2013) identified four key competencies necessary for novice teachers' success: 1) delivers academic content clearly, 2) maintains high academic expectations, 3) maintains high behavioral expectations, and 4) maximizes instructional time (p.14).These competencies clearly and directly relate to the impact that CM has on student learning.

Reflective Practice
The research literature indicates that supervisor feedback is insufficient to improve teaching practice (O'Neill & Stephenson, 2012a, 2012b).However, PST highly value feedback from cooperating teachers and may perceive their own self-efficacy as higher (Knoblauch & Woolfolk Hoy, 2008;Li & Zhang, 2000).This points to the importance of having PST reflect on their practice as a strategy to increase PST self-efficacy.Stoughton (2007) used journal writing and narrative analysis to help PST assess possibilities: what did they do as a teacher in the classroom, how could the situation have been better handled, and how could they prepare to enact a better possibility the next time?She asked participants to discuss a) the philosophy and tone of the behavioral expectations and practices they assigned; b) how well they thought these expectations would work in their own classrooms; and c) what, if anything, they would do differently in future practice.Stoughton (2007) concluded that a "careful and thoughtful analysis" of student reflections can provide teacher educators "with a clearer understanding of their students' thinking and thus can become a powerful tool in providing a context for important discussions" (p.1035).This supports the use of reflections in this study as an important mirror to and foundation for meaningful discussions with students aimed at improving practice and self-efficacy.
Similarly, Balli (2011) concluded that faculty must understand the prior knowledge of PST about CM to support teacher preparation programs.This supports the use of pre-and post-testing for PST; if instructors take a data-driven approach and reflect on their own assumptions, they can improve instruction and strengthen the foundation that ties theory and practice.Furthermore, Balli (2011) asserts that helping PST to master CM while building relationships with students in the classroom "is a challenging but essential task in teacher education coursework." (p. 250).This points to the need to tie theory and practice, with an emphasis on teacher-student relationships.

Aligning Coursework and Applied Learning Opportunities
Multiple researchers have attributed lower levels of reported self-efficacy to a lack of real teaching experience (O'Neill & Stephenson, 2012a, 2012b;Putnam, 2009).Putman (2009) concluded that in light of Bandura's (1997) work, "it became quickly apparent that the effects of mastery and vicarious experiences were predominant factors" and had "greater impact on student teaching as compared to coursework" (p.243).However, Ficarra and Quinn (2014) found that most teachers reported learning about evidence-based CM practices through classroom experience and in-service training, not from their teacher training programs.
O 'Neill and Stephenson (2011) specifically recommended "mandatory stand-alone" CM modules and cohesive embedded units using evidence-based practice rather than theory, ideally linked to instructional experience.They found that opportunities to practice CM were associated with higher self-efficacy; this included elements like making expectations clear, getting students to follow rules, establishing routines, and responding to defiant students.They further argued that novice teachers who have solid self-efficacy are less likely to suffer from stress or burnout, making them less likely to leave the teaching profession.

Connecting Theory to Practice
The New Teacher Project (2013) found that PST regularly identified managing student behavior problems as a primary concern and that classroom learning was insufficient for these PST to thrive without applied learning opportunities.Similarly, Rosas and West (2009) concluded that effective CM instruction in teacher preparation programs is vital when establishing positive learning environments that support academic success.Moore et al. (2017) explored pre-service and novice teachers' knowledge around evidence-based CM strategies finding that while most teachers reported being somewhat knowledgeable in CM strategies and used them on occasion, teachers felt inadequately prepared and limited in their ability, or entirely unable, to apply these strategies or develop intervention strategies.These two studies clearly speak to the need to connect theory to practice during clinical experience.
Finally, Brophy (2010) posited that research on CM shows that successful teachers approach CM "as a process of establishing an effective learning environment rather than emphasizing their roles as disciplinarians" (p.41).This entails articulating clear and consistent expectations, providing direct instruction for desired procedures, and giving cues and reminders about these procedures.The implication for the current research study is that CM models must include established expectations, classroom procedures and routines, and preventive strategies for managing student behavior.

Site and Sample
The PST program examined in this study is part of a large urban university in the Northeast United States; founded in 1993, it is one of the largest teacher education programs in New York State.The graduate program creates local partnerships with public schools across the state to address problems that impact student achievement and equity in educational opportunity.In-person and virtual programs require between 36 and 42 credit hours, which include both field experience (100 hours) and student teaching (150 to 200 hours).At the time of this publication, these experiences were the only available applied learning opportunity hours; additionally, a single course offered in CM was offered.
The Graduate School of Education has a diverse national and international student body of approximately 900 master's degrees earning students.In 2015, the school was ranked in the top 10% for awarding the most Master of Education degrees to minorities.Many students work part-time or full-time in the education sector; many are second-career teachers.
The setting for the study was an asynchronous IM course included 12 independent modules over one semester.The study sample was comprised of 22 PST who were enrolled in the teacher preparation program.PST were of mixed genders and ranged in age from 22 to 40.The COVID-19 pandemic did not have any impact on the course as it was taught asynchronously.PST were able to complete their IE (IE) and work with their student learner in-person.
PST indicated that when they started their student teaching, they had little to no direct experience working with students.Their field experience hours were early in their course program and only required them to observe classroom teachers in two different grade levels.Additionally, they had no opportunity to apply what they were learning from their IM coursework in a field setting unless they happened to be working in a school at the time.

Methods
The literature suggests that teacher retention is a national issue that arises from local systems in local contexts; for teachers earning a teaching credential, 78.5% prepared for their credential in-state (NCES, 2016).Thus, improvement science (Bryk et al., 2015), also referred to as "practitioner research" or "action research," was an ideal methodology for this research study.As there is a robust literature on the methodology of improvement The initial prototype intervention was designed in a graduate level language and literacy IM course offered in the Spring 2021 semester.I collaborated with another instructor to evaluate faculty syllabi to create uniform synchronous and asynchronous course curriculum.We designed a new module with 12 components and IE to give PST applied learning opportunities.After creating the module, we reviewed it for reliability and feasibility, discussing results and ideas for revision.

Do Phase
The program chair and I conducted an initial mini-PDSA cycle in the Summer 2021 semester; we believed it was ideal to test these ideas with a smaller number of PST in the summer semester.I used class meetings to introduce CM solutions around teacher-student relationships and establishing effective classroom procedures and routines.I also used that time to discuss how IE impacted course experience, exploring a) how PST perceived the IE connecting theory and practice and b) how PST developed stronger self-efficacy with regard to understanding and using CM strategies.Written reflections also explored these ideas.PST chose student learners from traditional and alternative education environments.We explored whether PST perceived IE allowed them to connect theory and practice, strengthening self-efficacy in understanding and using CM strategies.Embedded into the final project were questions that helped us assess the practicality of the IE module.

Study Phase
We analyzed the final projects and written reflections to assess PST experience with the new module.Six themes emerged: a) difficulty putting theory into practice, b) challenges building student-teacher relationships, c) problems creating procedures to facilitate student learning, d) uncertainty introducing routines to follow the procedures, e) struggle with CM, and f) limited self-reflection and personal reward.These informed revisions to the final prototype.Overall, student response to the new module was positive.One PST shared that the module "was a way to connect what I'm learning to what I am teaching in the classroom.I use a different strategy or read more about a strategy I have previously used, and [I] can see what the benefits are supposed to be versus what they were."Another student shared that the module "helped me as a teacher to really understand what I need to do to help my students understand and comprehend."A third student admitted that the module "was truly a learning experience… As a first-year teacher, my struggle was developing a structured system and perfecting my CM."A fourth student was enthusiastic, sharing, "It was very rewarding to see the strategies and teaching methods work effectively… Seeing my student grow from a firsthand point of view as a result of the strategies that I am being taught."We felt that the results were strong enough to adopt the process and move into another PDSA cycle.

Act Phase
Given the initial success of the intervention, we integrated the IE module into the course Language and Literacy in Special Education 7-12.The first full PDSA cycle intervention was formulated based on what we learned from offering the prototype solution and the mini-PDSA cycle.The module contained three elements.First, we used weekly text logs with prompts to help students bridge theory and practice.PST were asked to identify a) one important idea they took from the text; b) a question that arose out of the text; and c) connections to relevant pedagogy (e.g., academic achievement that builds upon students' knowledge, CM solutions, teacher-student relationships, and/or sociopolitical awareness).Second, two optional class meetings were held to discuss CM; attending a class meeting took the place of a text log assignment.Third, we included materials specifically addressing CM (Bronke, 2021) and teacher-student relationships (Adams, 2020;Matthews, 2021;Rigsbee, 2010).Students had written assignments to synthesize these articles with other course materials and identify important takeaways.They were asked to reflect on how the materials altered their ideas about developing relationships with diverse students.Based on our previous work, we use a generic PDSA cycle (see Figure 3).To date, we have conducted 3 iterations of this PDSA cycle exploring the impact of our IE module.The findings are discussed in Section 5. Research Question 2 asked, "In what way will applied learning opportunities within IM coursework improve self-efficacy in the use of CM strategies?"The survey data for Question 4 spoke directly to PST general perceptions of self-efficacy.Survey data revealed the most significant growth in the areas of 1) using multiple behavior management strategies in the classroom, 2) clearly communicating expectations and routines, and 3) communicating with students about appropriate behavior.

Subsequent Survey Data
When finalizing my dissertation study, two important implications for further research and practice emerged.First was a suggestion that I replicate this research over a longer period of time around the question of whether efficacy would increase even more if the study period encompassed the entire period of the candidates' Instructional Experience.Second, I should continue collecting data to gauge effectiveness of the continued course modifications as to have the relevant data when introducing these ideas to other course instructors.The CMSEI data is reflective of students in the language and literacy course, as well as a course in curriculum design, in both the Spring 2023 and Summer 2023 semesters.
The focus of both research questions continued to be around the a) integration of CM strategies within the course syllabus, b) how this learning impacted PST practices, and c) putting theory into practice during IE.An average of the two semesters' survey data revealed the most significant growth in the areas of • keeping defiant students involved in my lessons (47% increase between pre and post) • using a variety of behavior management models and techniques (24% increase between pre and post) • managing a class very well (20% increase between pre and post) The next tier of results, while not as significant, speaks directly to more direct and proactive strategies • keeping students on track if they stop working (16.1% increase between pre and post) • making my expectations clear to my students (15.9% increase between pre and post) • redirecting students if they disrupt a lesson (14.4% increase between pre and post)

Qualitative Data
Five themes emerged from the focus groups with students, two from each research question and one emergent theme: a) student-teacher relationships, b) orderly classrooms, c) preventative measures, d) difficult students, and e) technology in the classroom.These themes provided a more nuanced understanding of the quantitative data and pointed to what specifically contributed to growth in efficacy.Written reflections supported how PST were developing effective CM strategies attributable to the new module.For example, one candidate, a para-professional in a public school, wrote about how texts became "a personal resource for me now and in the future.I now realize the importance of the relationship balance and the role it plays to the establishment of effective CM." Another wrote, "I enjoyed the articles and I think I will use some of those approaches to develop good relationships with my students.I want to try to be the caring teacher that students will appreciate." Student-teacher relationships, the most robust of the five themes, spoke to the importance of developing strong teacher-student relationships.PST expanded their understanding of what strong teacher-student relationships could look like, with a goal of developing genuine connections with students as a foundation for student learning.Several writing reflections addressed the struggle of finding "balance" between being friendly and acting with authority.One PST stated that they "didn't want the students to treat me like their friend" and put "guidelines in place so students would know not to cross that line."Another admitted, "When I first started in the classroom, I leaned towards the 'my-way-or-the-highway' approach to building relationships with students;" after easing up on this approach, they realized that this approach was "not the greatest with high school students."A third PST shared that they did not initially have the right balance in their first month of school and students "began to take advantage by talking over me." Orderly classrooms spoke to using procedures, rules, and routines to set the tone and maintain discipline, with a focus on the beginning of the school year and involving students as critical.Students spoke about role modeling consistency and accountability.One PST said, "For an orderly classroom, respect between a teacher and the students is important as well as student-to-student relationships, especially while group work is being completed."This participant suggested that students are "more engaged in the lesson and willing to learn" when they can connect to and engage in respectful group discussion.
PM spoke to practices in the classroom that contribute to more effective CM and how these measures can support work with difficult students.Even with specific coursework addressing PM, the challenge of effectively implementing PM influenced PST self-efficacy.Establishing clear expectations and setting the tone at the beginning of the school year were viewed as important components of PM that emerged from strong student-teacher relationships.
Difficult students spoke to the challenge of working with behavioral issues in the classroom.PST wrote about the importance of not judging students or labeling them as "difficult," and giving them a fair chance.The issue of managing difficult students was a recurring theme, even with PM in place.Written reflections emphasized how important it is "to build relationships based on trust, mutual respect, and meaningful communication that will encourage students to tell their stories."This was believed to encourage strong relationships and discourage poor behavior.
Technology in the classroom was the final and emergent theme; it related to managing student behavior, improving student engagement, and addressing specific challenges of students with special needs.PST shared challenges over the use of technology, both in and out of the classroom, as well as ideas around how to use technology to connect with and engage their students.This emergent theme was directly related to PM and maintaining an orderly classroom.One participant shared the idea of using Tik Tok as a medium for student learning, saying, "Social media is their thing so, while teaching, I build lessons around these things."However, students struggled with PM as it related to the pervasive problem of cell phones in the classroom.PST had many ideas but could find no one effective solution.PST concurred that cell phones and social media made it much harder to maintain an orderly classroom environment.Furthermore, cellphone use in the classroom appeared to undermine confidence and self-efficacy in spite of robust classroom discussions.

Discussion
O' Neill and Stephenson (2011) recommended a combination of CM (i.e., knowledge, skills, understanding, and strategies) with scheduled clinical experience to bridge the gap from theory into practice.Moore et al. (2017) argued that PST need to connect theory to practice during IE.PST cited putting theory into practice 31 times during their final reflections; within those comments, 48% referred to what they learned from each other during the discussions.Ideas about PM they could use to manage student behaviors came up 19 times, with 47% of those comments relating to using specific protocols to effectuate stronger CM.I found it encouraging when participants shared what they were learning from each other about using PM.It is my hope that this created a habit of collaboration they will take into their permanent teaching positions; it is especially critical for new teachers to ask for help and reinforce their efficacy by sharing effective practices with others.
This study made simple, no-cost modifications to existing courses using a module focused on CM and IE as the vehicle for change; this module unequivocally created a stronger program that supported the self-efficacy of PST.Student ratings of self-efficacy at the end of the course earned an overall score of 87.50%, ranging from 75.00% to 93.75%.Comparing pre-and post-survey data, students reported an overall increase of 16.48 points in their confidence in using eight CM strategies (pre, 77.27%; post, 93.75%).As shown in the model in Figure 1, teacher self-efficacy is the key element for reducing stress and increasing satisfaction, which drive retention.
Written reflections, an essential part of the course, were a way for PST to process and thoughtfully synthesize theory and practice.Carefully analyzing these reflections gave me a better understanding of how students were processing and applying their knowledge from the coursework and what I needed to do to enhance their knowledge.Stoughton (2007) validated the use of reflection to improve practice and self-efficacy.This was also a way for me to model building relationships with the PST and to assess how they were building relationships with their students.Initial data suggested the possibility of over-confidence in the students' abilities to understand and use CM strategies.Post-survey data validated PST growth in both areas.This aligns with the research that concluded that for PST to gain self-efficacy in using CM strategies, they first need to learn about them in IM courses and engage in a process of shared inquiry (Merc et al., 2015;Symons et al., 2020).Other research emphasizes the importance of aligning IM coursework and pedagogy (Flower, 2017;O'Neill, 2012aO'Neill, , 2012b;;Symons et al., 2020).Changes in the efficacy in use of CM strategies can be explained by students' enhanced understanding of a) building relationships and b) maintaining orderly classrooms.
A primary objective of the revised course curricula in this study centered on the importance of establishing clear procedures and routines as essential preventive strategies needed to maintain an orderly classroom.Flower et al. (2017) substantiated this, arguing that if we want our PST to have the preventive, not reactive, skills to maintain classroom order, instruction needs to be provided within coursework; maintaining an orderly environment for teaching and learning is extremely challenging when PST are ill-prepared to manage their classrooms.
The data from also show evidence of PST gaining critical skills to mitigate stress as new teachers.PST understood the importance of creating an orderly classroom in partnership with students, creating satisfaction through strong student-teacher relationships and the managing of an effective classroom.At the end of the study period, 93.75% of PST reported implementing a consistent classroom routine, aligning with the theme of maintaining an orderly classroom environment; this constituted a 30.11%increase.
During focus group discussions, participants agreed that preventive strategies in the classroom contributed to more effective CM; they were clear on how they were using these strategies and how the strategies influenced their teaching.Balli (2011) contended that helping PST learn how to build strong relationships with students while effectively managing their classroom is essential for IM coursework.Developing and maintaining strong teacher-student relationships, a foundation of the module used in this research, emerged as the most robust theme from this study.This aligns with Rosas and West (2009) who found that effective CM instruction in teacher education programs is vital to establishing a positive learning environment.
O 'Neill and Stephenson (2012) reported that while many of their study's participants believed they could effectively manage a classroom by a) making their expectations clear and b) getting student to follow rules and routines, participants expressed a lower sense of self-efficacy around maintaining an orderly learning environment when managing difficult students.This outcome shows how crucial it is to embed strategies around dealing with disruptive students into IM coursework; it demonstrates how instruction combined with applied learning opportunities is strongly associated with improved self-efficacy.In working with difficult students, 93.75% of PST reported being able to keep defiant students involved in lessons and redirect them quickly if they disrupt a lesson.
Furthermore, satisfaction and meaning-making contribute to teacher retention (Lavy & Bocker, 2018;Poulo, 2020).The data show that the innovation designed and tested here was highly effective.A PST commented on the connection between building strong student-teacher relationships and satisfaction (Poulo, 2020;Spilt et al., 2012), "I believe showing students that you care for them is crucial part of the life of teaching.Knowing that I make a difference in a student's life is important to me." Developing strong teacher-student relationships was the most robust finding from the qualitative data; the research literature suggests this is an asset to build on for teacher retention.Furthermore, PST understood the importance and acquired the skills to bridge theory to practice.All students (100.0%) reported being able to make expectations clear to their students and 81.25% reported being able to communicate to students that they were serious about getting appropriate behavior.These skills are foundational to building strong relationships that lead to an orderly classroom environment which drives satisfaction and retention.

Limitations of the Study
Like all unfunded research projects, this research was constrained by time and resources; however, continuing this research beyond my doctoral research addressed an earlier recommendation of conducting a longitudinal study.Additionally, improvement science research takes a hyper-localized approach which informs but is not generalizable to other contexts.Additionally, I was the sole instructor whose courses were investigated; next steps include engaging other faculty at my institution to participate in this research.Finally, the pandemic imposed a limitation as I was unable to observe PSTs applying the CM strategies in their classrooms; thus, the data relies solely on PST self-reports.

Recommendations for Practice
The first recommendation for practice is that other schools of education use improvement science with a team of key stakeholders to identify the local needs of their PST (i.e., creation of a Fishbone Diagram, local data analysis, identification of preliminary drivers).Using a review of the evidence-based literature, secondary drivers and change ideas should be mapped out; these should be used to frame a theory of change and a prototype PDSA cycle.Once a prototype PDSA cycle has been completed and assessed, a more robust PDSA cycle should be designed, tested, and analyzed.Honoring improvement science's commitment to small, incremental, continuous change, this PDSA cycle should be adopted, adapted, or abandoned as appropriate, with a new cycle of innovation begun.
For this study, addressing PST self-efficacy as a part of a larger response to teacher attrition, we found text logs for highly targeted articles and videos with robust guiding questions to be impactful.Class meetings designated for discussion of CM and PM were critical to helping students bridge theory and practice.Requiring written reflections established a foundation for self-reflective practice that PST will ideally take into their teaching practice.

Conclusion
As a former school principal and current clinical supervisor/instructor in multiple teacher preparation programs, I know how essential effective classroom management is to a successful teaching experience.Unfortunately, many new teachers lack these skills, causing them to experience low self-efficacy in their real-world teaching.This contributes to new teachers' dissatisfaction with their teaching, often in spite of a deep commitment to helping children.In the face of such low self-efficacy and dissatisfaction, these teachers often leave the profession at a time when they are most needed.I found it tremendously promising that these pre-service teachers will be able to enter their permanent teaching positions with a clearer understanding of the importance of the classroom environment and, more importantly, how to create a positive classroom culture.
It is my hope that the teachers who graduate from our program find success in their permanent teaching positions and remain in the profession, inspiring their students and helping them to reach their full potential.Furthermore, I hope that this research empowers other faculty to make a difference where they can to mitigate the crisis of teacher attrition in public schools: in their own classrooms and their own schools of education.In the words of Theodore Roosevelt, "Far better it is to dare mighty things, to win glorious triumphs, even though checkered by failure, than to take rank with those poor spirits who neither enjoy much nor suffer much, because they live in the gray twilight that knows not victory nor defeat."

Table 3 .
Survey responses, pre-and post-intervention Note.* Top set of numbers are the pre-survey results.The middle set of numbers are the post-survey results.The bottom set of numbers are the change.