The Relationship Between Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) Levels and Cyberloafing Behaviour of Teachers

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between teachers’ fear of missing out (FoMO) levels and their cyberloafing behaviour and to reveal whether teachers’ FoMO and their cyberloafing behaviour differ according to their gender. The sample of the research consisted of 702 secondary school teachers working in state schools within the borders of Istanbul in 2019−2020 education year. According to the research, it was identified that the level of teachers’ FoMO levels and cyberloafing behaviours were moderate. It was detected that teachers’ FoMO levels differed significantly according to gender. With this result, male teachers’ FoMO levels were higher than female teachers’ FoMO levels. Similarly, it was observed that there was a significant difference between teachers’ cyberloafing behaviour and gender. According to this result, it was found that male teachers’ mean score of cyberloafing behaviour was higher than female teachers’ mean score of cyberloafing behaviour in all sub-scales. In addition, a positive significant relationship between teachers’ FoMO and their cyberloafing behaviour was observed.


Introduction
As a consequence of the internet, tools providing one-way communication such as newspapers and television, which defined as traditional media, have been replaced by new media which can be interacted independently of time and place. This situation has changed the habits of human life. With the help of the internet and the new media, which is a cornerstone of the information age, people can take a lot of transactions from banking to healthcare and from educational services to shopping. However, with the excessive use of internet and social network accounts, people have started to use social media uncontrollably and it has been seen that this kind of use caused some unwanted habits and even addictions (Gezgin et al., 2017).
With the result of the internet and social media, which are used as an educational tool, such concepts as FoMO or cyberloafing have been included in the literature. FoMO, which is thought that teachers have, can be defined as anxiety that more fun activities may take place outside in the current period of time and that the person is unaware and distant from this. It is possible that teachers may also have FoMO. Therefore, teachers may sometimes use the internet for personal purpose other than work-related purposes, and this situation may hinder their educational process. For this reason, it is thought that cyberloafing, which is thought to be related to teachers' FoMO, may also performed by teachers in educational organizations. At this point, it is thought that teachers who are one of the most important parts of the education, engage in cyberloafing activities in educational institutions and this situation may negatively affect the educational process.
It is thought to be a relationship between FoMO and cyberloafing activities. Tozkoparan and Kuzu (2019) found a significant relationship between FoMO and cyberloafing in their study, the sample of which consisted of 141 pre-service teachers. However, it can be seen that studies which investigate teachers' FoMO or cyberloafing behaviour in terms of various variables and observe the relationship between FoMO and cyberloafing behaviour from the point of teachers are limited. Despite well-prepared teaching plans and activities, cyberloafing may cause some problems in the education process. At this point, one of the factors which affect teachers' tendency to demonstrate cyberloafing behaviour can be their FoMO. Therefore, it can be said that investigating the relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and their cyberloafing behaviour is important.
It is seen that gender is one of the most associated concepts in the studies on FoMO and cyberloafing (Abel et al., 2016;Arslan et al., 2019;Blanchard & Henle, 2008;Garret & Danzinger, 2008;Przybylsky et al., 2013). Ahmad and Omar (2017) found a significant difference between cyberloafing and gender. In the study, it was found that male employees did more cyberloafing activities compared to female employees. In parallel with this study, Lim and Chen (2012) observed that men had a tendency to do cyberloafing activities more than women. Similar to these studies, Gezgin et al. (2017) found a significant difference between gender and FoMO. Consequnetly, it can be said that gender may be associated with FoMO and cyberloafing.

Fear of Missing Out (FoMO)
Fear of missing out (FoMO), with different definitions in the literature, is defined as a sort of social anxiety by Dossey (2013). The concept of FoMO has been associated with the perception of low self-confidence (Hosgor et al., 2017), social exclusion, anxiety, stress (Abel et al., 2016, communication difficulties in the real-life (Liftiah et al., 2016), the perception of scarcity that is used as a marketing strategy (Aydin, 2018;Lim, 2016), the desire to connect more economically in a cheaper way (Ellison et al., 2007), the desire to have information about each subject (Cinar, 2017). Along with these, it has been observed that FoMO affects people's mood and productivity (Abel et al., 2016;Adams et al., 2016;Baker et al., 2016;Caprara et al., 1985;Dossey, 2013;Gemmil & Peterson, 2006;Pantic, 2012). Moreover, studies which are associated with the relationship between FoMO levels and personality traits, smartphone use and addiction, nomophobia level, subjective well-being or student motivation in terms of different variables are also available in the literature (Alt, 2015;Gezgin et al., 2017;Hato, 2013;Stead & Bibby, 2017;Tanrikulu, 2018;Tras & Oztemel, 2019). Gokler et al. (2016) and Alabi (2013) have demonstrated that with the increase in social media usage, individuals' addictive behaviour and FoMO levels can also increase according to their studies.
FoMO is a concept which may also affect teachers who are working in educational institutions. It is thought that with the developing technology, the fundamental reason behind this situation is the inclusion of the internet related educational tools into the educational organizations and the introduction of social media as an important communication and education tool. Similar to the other people working in other organizations, teachers who use the internet and social media to make the education process more qualified can also use the internet and social media for personal purpose. Teachers' frequent use of the internet, which meet the needs of teachers in many areas such as banking, healthcare, travel, socialization and personal development can cause FoMO in teachers. It is thought that teachers who frequently use the internet can have an impression that more fun activities are being done outside while they are performing educational duties. For this reason, teachers' FoMO can be defined as an anxiety of the possibility that more fun events can be happening in another place while they are performing education duties due to the posts they see on social networks and therefore teachers' desire to stay connected in social networks constantly.
There are a lot of definitions of cyberloafing. Lim (2002) defined cyberloafing as the use of internet access for the personal purpose at work by employees. According to Blanchard and Henle (2008), cyberloafing means personal internet and e-mail use during working hours. Cyberloafing is also defined as unapproved internet or computer use for entertainment by Askew (2009). In the lights of these definitions, it is possible to define cyberloafing as employees' use of informatics tools for purposes not related to their current duties (Unal & Tekdemir, 2015). With the result of the internet which is the indispensable communication tool in educational organizations, there is a possibility that teachers can also do cyberloafing. In this study, teachers' cyberloafing behaviours are defined as 'activities that teachers do on the internet as an extra-curricular activity through their smartphones or school computer'.
It has been known that concepts of cyberloafing has been investigated with various concepts in the literature. Cyberloafing is associated with personality traits (Everton et al., 2005;Kaplan & Ogut, 2012), organizational justice (Kelloway et al., 2010;Lim, 2002;Zoghbi, 2009), organizational trust (Orucu & Ozudogru, 2018) and job satisfaction (Askew, 2012). Davis et al. (2002) state that problematic internet use may be related to the cognitive and behavioural characteristics of individuals, and that people who feel lonely tend to use the internet for social comfort. Such situations are thought to cause some negative consequences for organizations. Studies have shown that non-work-related internet use and cyberloafing behaviours cause cost loss and decrease employee productivity (Bock & Ho, 2009;Liberman et al., 2011;Robinson & Bennet, 1995). It is thought that these negative consequences related to cyberloafing are also valid for teachers, and this situation may affect educational activities negatively.

Research Goal
In the study, it has been aimed to examine the relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and their cyberloafing behaviours and to reveal whether teachers' FoMO levels and their cyberloafing behaviour differ significantly according to gender.

Sample
The sample consists of 702 secondary school teachers working in state schools within the borders of Istanbul in 2019−2020 education year. Out of 702 teachers participating in the research, 372 (53%) are women and 330 (47%) are men. 351 (50%) are married and 351 (50%) are single. According to seniority of the teachers participated in the research, 79 (11.3%) of the teachers are between the range of 1−5 years, 156 (22.2%) are in the range of 6−10 years, 171 (24.4%) are in the range of 11−15 years, 148 (21.1%) are in the range of 16−20 years, 67 (9.5%) is in the range of 21−25 years and 81 (11.5%) are between 26 and over.

Data Collection
To measure teachers' cyberloafing behaviour, the cyberloafing activities scale which was developed by Blanchard and Henle (2008), adapted to Turkish by Kalayci (2010) and updated by Yasar (2013) was used. The scale consists of 23 items and 4 sub-scales: personal, search, social and news sub-scales. According to the analysis carried out to determine the reliability level of the cyberloafing activities scale, Cronbach Alpha (α) coefficient is α = .94 for the personal sub-scale, α = .93 for search sub-scale, α = .92 for social sub-scale and α = .88 for the news sub-scale. For this reason, it can be accepted that personal, search, social and news sub-scales of the cyberloafing activities scale are very reliable.
To determine the teachers' FoMO levels, fear of missing out (FoMO) scale which was developed by Przybylski et al. (2013) and adapted to Turkish by Gokler et al. (2016) was used. The scale consists of 10 items and one scale. According to reliability analysis which was performed to determine the reliability level of the FoMO scale, α = .95 was found. According to this value, it is possible to say that FoMO scale is very reliable. Table 1 demonstrates the information about the item and scoring scale of the cyberloafing activities and FoMO scales.

Analyzing of Data
Correlational survey method was used in the study, which aimed to examine the relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and their cyberloafing behaviours. In this context, quantitative research approach was used in the analysis of the data.
To analyse the data, IBM SPSS 23.0 program was used. Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk normality tests, kurtosis-skewness and histogram graphics were used to determine whether the data set distributed normally. The analysis demonstrated that kurtosis and skewness values of all sub-scales of the scales were between -1.5 and +1.5. Tabachnick and Fidell (2013) state that the value range of -1.5 and +1.5 and George and Mallery (2010) state that the range of -2 and +2 are acceptable values. For this reason, parametric analysis methods were used in this study.
Independent samples t-test was performed to examine whether teachers' FoMO levels differed significantly according to gender. Similarly, to find whether there was a significant difference between teachers' cyberloafing behaviour and gender, independent samples t-test was performed. Besides, Pearson correlation analysis was conducted to investigate whether there was a significant relationship between teachers' FoMO and their

Results
The findings related to teachers' FoMO is shown in Table 2. When the mean score of FoMO in Table 2 is analysed, it can be said that teachers' FoMO level is moderate (X = 2.705, sd = 1.159).
To determine whether teachers' FoMO differs significantly according to gender, independent samples t-test was conducted. Independent samples t-test results related to teachers' FoMO according to gender are given in Table  3. According to Table 3, teachers' FoMO levels differ according to gender (t (670) = -8.31, p < .05). The mean score of FoMO levels of male teachers (X = 3.07) is higher than the mean score of FoMO levels of female teachers (X = 2.37). Cohen (1988) states that if the effect size is .02, the effect size is low if .05, the effect size is medium and if it is .08, the effect size is high. According to this, the effect size (Cohen d = .063) demonstrates that the effect size of this difference is high.
Mean total score of teachers' cyberloafing behaviour and mean scores of sub-scales are shown in Table 4. According to this result, mean total score of cyberloafing is X = 2.621. While 'social' sub-scale is the highest sub-scale with X = 2.898, 'personal' sub-scale is the lowest sub-scale with X = 2.394. Besides the mean score of 'search' sub-scale is X = 2.782. Also, the mean score of 'news' sub-scale is X = 2.769.  When Table 5 is examined, teachers' cyberloafing shows a significant difference in terms of gender (t (700) = -8.62 , p < .05). According to this result, the mean score of male teachers' cyberloafing (X = 2.99) is higher than the mean score of female teachers' cyberloafing (X = 2.29). The effect size of cyberloafing (Cohen d = .064) demonstrates that the effect size of this difference is high. 'Personal' sub-scale (t (661) = -8.28, p < .05), 'search' sub-scale (t (700 ) = -9.48 , p < .05), 'social' sub-scale (t (700 ) = -8.44, p < .05) and 'news' sub-scale (t (698) = -6.68, p < .05) show significant difference in terms of gender. The effect sizes of 'personal' sub-scale (Cohen d = .062), 'search' sub-scale (Cohen d = .071), 'social' sub-scale (Cohen d = .063) and 'news' sub-scale (Cohen d = .050) show that the effect size of the differences of all sub-scales is high. It has been determined that for male teachers, the mean score of 'personal' sub-scale is X = 2.75, 'search' sub-scale is X = 3.19, 'social' sub-scale is X = 3.30 and 'news' sub-scale is X = 3.06. For female teachers, the mean score of 'personal' sub-scale is X = 2.07, 'search' sub-scale is X = 2.41, 'social' sub-scale is X = 2.53 and 'news' sub-scale is X = 2.51. According to these results, it can be seen that the mean score of male teachers is higher than the mean score of female teachers for all sub-scales of cyberloafing activities scale.
To analyse whether there is a significant relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and their cyberloafing behaviour, Pearson correlation analysis was conducted. Table 6 demonstrates the results of Pearson correlation analysis that was conducted. When Table 6 is examined, there is a positive significant relationship between teachers' FoMO and their cyberloafing behaviour (r = .804, p < .01). This relationship level is high. Besides, there is a significant relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and all sub-scales of cyberloafing activities scale. According to this, there is a high level of a significant relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and 'personal' sub-scale of cyberloafing (r = .715, p < .01). Similarly, there is a high level of a significant relationship between teachers' FoMO and 'search' sub-scale of cyberloafing (r = .761, p < .01). It can also be seen that there is a high level of a significant relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and 'social' sub-scale (r = .776, p < .01). Finally, there is a moderate level of a significant relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and 'news' sub-scale of cyberloafing activities scale (r = .601, p < .01).
The square of the correlation coefficient (r 2 ) is called the determination coefficient and this shows how much change in one variable can be explained by another variable (Can, 2017). The results of Pearson correlation analysis showed that the determination coefficient was found as [(.804) 2 = .64]. Accordingly, the change in teachers' FoMO level can explain 64% of their cyberloafing behaviour. In other words, the change in teachers' jel.ccsenet.org Journal of Education and Learning Vol. 9, No. 5; cyberloafing behaviour can explain 64% of their FoMO levels.

Discussion
In this study, it has been investigated the relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and their cyberloafing behaviour and has been revealed whether there is a significant difference between teachers' FoMO levels and gender. Besides, it has been examined whether teachers' cyberloafing behaviour shows significant difference in terms of gender. In this direction, 702 secondary teachers working in public schools in the borders of Istanbul in 2019−2020 education year formed the sample of the study.
According to the results gained from the study teachers' FoMO levels are in the moderate level. Moreover, teachers' FoMO levels show a significant difference in terms of gender. It has been observed that male teachers' FoMO levels are higher than female teachers' FoMO levels. This situation may derive from the fact that male teachers' desire to stay connected is higher than female teachers. Correlatively, Arslan et al. (2019) In the study, the mean scores of teachers' cyberloafing behaviour and 'personal', 'search', 'social', 'news' sub-scales are in moderate level. Based on the means of all sub-scales, it is observed that teachers show cyberloafing behaviour which is in the 'news' sub-scale at most. With these results, it possible to say that teachers' cyberloafing behaviour is at a moderate level.
It has been found that the mean scores of cyberloafing and all sub-scales of cyberloafing show significant difference according to gender. This means that the mean scores of male teachers' cyberloafing behaviour are higher than female teachers' cyberloafing behaviour in all sub-scales. It can be said that male teachers' desire to be up to date is higher than female teachers. This result is consistent with Ahmad and Omar (2017), Blanchard and Henle (2008), Garret and Danzinger (2008), Lim and Chen's (2012) study. However, no significant difference was found between cyberloafing and gender in Anandarajan and Simmers (2004), Bagriacik-Yilmaz (2017), Kilic and Kocabas (2017), Lavoie and Pychyl's (2001) studies.
The final result of the study demonstrates that there is a significant positive relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and their cyberloafing behaviour. Moreover, the result of the study demonstrates a significant positive relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and 'personal', 'search', 'social', 'news' sub-scales of cyberloafing. It may stem from the increase in the desire of teachers to stay connected since they think that other people outside are doing more fun activities at that time, and this thought may cause more FoMO in teachers. The determination coefficient which has been gained from Pearson correlation analysis has been determined as [(.804) 2 = .64]. With this result, the change in teachers' FoMO levels can explain 64% of their cyberloafing behaviour. In other words, teachers' cyberloafing behaviour can explain 64% of their FoMO levels. Similar to the study, a significant relationship between FoMO and cyberloafing was detected in Ozcan's (2019) study. In Tozkoparan and Kuzu's (2019) study, no significant relationship between FoMO and 'personal', 'search' and 'news' sub-scales of cyberloafing is found; however, there is a significant relationship between FoMO and 'social' sub-scale of cyberloafing.
This study is limited to the secondary school teachers working in public schools within the borders of Istanbul in 2019-2020 education year. Besides, the demographic variable of the study is limited to gender. The findings of other studies which investigate the relationship between teachers' FoMO levels and their cyberloafing activities can be expanded by adding teachers who work in different educational institutions or in different regions. At this point, to have more information, qualitative research can be conducted by getting students' opinions towards their teachers FoMO levels or their cyberloafing activities.