The Effects of Climate Change on Animal Production in Fiji

Climate change is a great impact on Fiji’s ecosystem including animal (livestock and marine) and crop production from past decades and still possesses a large effect on their economy as well. These climatic events include flooding, rise in ambient temperature, rise in the sea level, droughts, tropical cyclones, and all others that bring large changes to the environmental system. These large changes adversely affect animal production and its economy in Fiji. Not only this, individuals that are linked to animal production are also affected through climatic conditions such as loss of income and livestock species that die out during cyclones and other aspects. Not only the terrestrial species but the marine organisms are also affected since climatic changes bring alterations to their feeding period and the mating time leading to a vast decrease in organisms’ health, quality, and population. Consequently, the Fijian government and other Pacific organizations have brought strategies like adaptation plans to implement in animal production sectors. These plans and methods will help farmers in stimulating their farming systems and adapting to climatic changes and hence, this will lead to increased productivity and economy. The aim and objective of this review are to define and elaborate the climatic change effects on livestock and marine production in Fiji and effective solutions adapted by Fiji and other Pacific governments to refrain from adverse climate conditions.


Introduction
Fiji is regarded as one of the South Pacific Island Countries (SPICs) whereby, they are geographically segregated into Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. Almost every livelihood in Fiji relies on agriculture, fishing, and livestock production for their living and income (Reddy, 2007;FAO, 2008). However, their livelihoods have been endangered by climate change over many years, resulting in poor progress in their living style and income, thus, and increasing poverty in Fiji. Numerous studies in Fiji have pointed to global warming that has been associated with enhanced effects of greenhouse gases, such as, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone, and an increase in water vapor (Ramanathan & Feng, 2009;Montzka et al., 2011). The animal species in Fiji experience many climatic threats such as temperature changes and heat stress which eventually affects the fertility rate of male and female livestock (Igbal, 2022). The conservative threats imposed by climatic changes are staggering, however, if animal behaviorists each pick a central climate issue applicable to their ordered and habitat research interests, then interesting data and questions will arise that will be critical to conservational decision making (Buchholz et al., 2019). For instance, in the next 80 years or so, the sea level may rise by 0.53-0.98 m which will lead to beach-nesting species (plovers, sea turtles, horseshoe crabs) eventually losing their habitats (IPCC, 2014). Becoming more frequent and intense through 21st century and higher emissions scenarios 1 in 20-year extreme daily temperature will be 2-4 o C warmer than present extremes RCP8.5

RCP2.6
No significant change-still dominated by natural variability Becoming wetter across much of region especially near-equatorial Kiribati and Nauru with a magnitude of change increasing through 21st century and higher emissions scenarios. Drier French Polynesia and Pitcairn Islands. RCP4.5 RCP6.0 RCP8.5

Rainfall Extremes
No significant change-still dominated by natural variability Becoming more frequent and intense through 21st century and higher emissions scenarios 1 in 20-year extreme daily rainfall will occur every 7-10 years (RCP2.6) or every 4-6 years (RCP8.5)

Tropical Cyclones
No significant change Similar number or fewer tropical cyclones but those that occur will be more intense

ENSO Events
No significant change but central Pacific ENSOs more frequent than eastern Pacific ENSOs A continued source of inter-annual variability; associated rainfall extremes intensify and extreme El Niños (e.g., 1982Niños (e.g., -83, 1997 double in frequency during the 21st century Source: Vulnerability of Pacific Island agriculture and forestry to climate change (SPC, 2016).

Climate Change vs. Livestock Production and Productivity
Below are some of the impacts of climate change that affects livestock production in Fiji and other Pacific countries.

Effects of Changes in the Temperature
Livestock can usually adapt to small temperature increments. However, too much heat stress can affect livestock physiology, decreasing the fertility of males and females, and boosting the mortality rates. Many livestock species will gradually die if the temperature increases more than 42 to 45 o C. Specifically, poultry species are more prone to high vulnerability if there has been an increase in the temperature level, mostly when there is high humidity. Animals' appetite and feed intake are also reduced when the temperature rises above 30 o C. Local breeds in Fiji are highly adapted to such temperature levels; however, new animals that have been introduced to the environment get more affected by high temperature and relative humidity (King et al., 2006).
According to Christensen et al. (2004) and Morgan et al. (2007), it is being expected that high temperatures will result in plant tissue lignification's and thus, declining pastoral quality whereby, which will decrease their forage digestibility. There is a capability that climate change may cause amendments of C3 grasses to C4 grasses. These C3 and C4 plants that animals eat have a vast difference, such as C4 plants obtain a low quality of dry matter in larger amounts and possess increased carbon-nitrogen nutrition, whereas, C3 plants have less production yet they generally have more nutritional value (Easterling et al., 2007;Tubiello et al., 2007).
Van Dijk et al. (2010) found that climate change could also influence the disease trends in the future for livestock production. Incidents have been already recorded in Vanuatu, whereby, cattle are having intestinal problems (worms and infections) and the same has happened with piggery growers. These alterations in the patterns of disease occurrence depict a highly effective method to control the spread of extreme events like this (FAO, 2008). The following Figure 1 is used as an example to show an extreme increase in the temperature levels in Vanuatu which will eventually lead to changes in disease trend occurrence in the future ahead. jas.ccsenet.

Source: Th
Not only conditions intake is 8 The the growing season length is shortened due to rainfall distribution changes, many animal species can suffer an extended period of water and nutritional stress. Thus, animals will have to search for feed and adapt to fewer water frequencies (Thornton et al., 2009). As the rainfall patterns change frequently or become more variable, the plant tissues lignify increasingly, possess declined digestibility (Giridhar et al., 2015), and alterations in the food composition towards less palatable species (da Silveira Pontes et al., 2015). These changes can cause shifts in land use that can comprise unfavorable animal forage compositions, enhancing difficulties for smallholders to control and manage deficits in the animal feeds during dry season. The variations in rainfall patterns also lead to the death of the livestock species (Thornton et al., 2014). (Tropical Cyclone) "Cyclones, droughts, floods, heat waves and other extreme events such as tsunamis and storm surges can lead to reduced production, injury and the death of livestock" (Hoberg et al., 2008). [Over the past years, many livestock farmers have observed numerous effects of cyclones, heat waves, droughts, storm surges and flooding which has caused a wide reduction in their livestock production through injury or even death of livestock during flooding, drought, and cyclone periods]. Hoberg et al. (2008) also mentioned that "the effects can be either direct, such as damage caused by falling trees and moving debris or through the drowning of animals in flooded areas, or indirect through impacts on feed and water quality and quantity" [these effects are caused either by direct damages like moving debris and falling of trees or drowning of livestock animals in areas where flooding occurs rapidly or through indirect effects on the quality of water and feed]. "Flooding can impede access to available pasture and if it persists, will eventually damage or kill inundated pasture. High winds and flooding can also damage management infrastructure such as roads, fencing, wells, feeding stalls, etc. which can all have a detrimental effect on livestock production" (Hoberg et al., 2008). [In terms of flooding, it can rapidly reduce the access of pasture availability and if this scenario will persist, then flooding can even kill deluged pastures. High winds during cyclones and flooding can also damage infrastructural management like fences, roads, feeding stalls and so on, which eventually can have harmful effects on livestock production and productivity as well]. Flood occurrence can also lead to waterborne disease not only in livestock but also in humans as well (Hoberg et al., 2008). Graphs 1a and 1b below shows the number of Tropical Cyclone and wind speed that happened in the most intense tropical cyclones received in the Pacific regime. The data was obtained from the Fiji Meteorological Service Office in 2020. These events involve habitation changes like land use and cover, animal population movements, changes in the practices of management, as well as trade (Pilling & Hoffmann, 2011).

Effects of Extreme Events
For instance, Mastitis disease in Fiji which highly affects cattle's milk glands, can change its occurrence and infection periods due to climatic changes. According to Balsom (2010), and Igbal (2021), climate can have a direct and indirect influence on mastitis onset. One of the ways climates have an indirect influence on mastitis is that during the wet season, the outside conditions are muddy, therefore, can cause an increase in the number of mastitis causing bacteria. As for housing, it influences the chance of getting mastitis, for example, when cattles are outdoor, they have higher chances of getting mastitis whereas, indoor housing can also trigger mastitis when the stalls are small, the cows can get injured and contain mastitis". Moreover, interpretations made on observed changes of future disease distribution trends have yet not been completely understood by experts. With the above-described climatic changes, the pathogens and hosts can be placed together in a new area, thus, deriving new disease and pest threats to animal health and livestock production (Pilling & Hoffmann, 2011).
Pathogens that spend half of their life cycle outside the animal host has a high chance of increasing their population due to a rise in the temperature level. Likewise, precipitation and moisture increase in the atmosphere can also lead to better survival for some pathogens, thus, boosting the chances of re-infections in animals which will gradually reduce the production level as well (Harvell et al., 2002). The table below shows the review done by Harvell et al. (2002) on the pathogen's rapid growth. major ingredient in the diets of non-ruminant animals. Changing weather conditions such as droughts can severely affect the growth rates of many plant species that are used for feeding by defoliating (James, 2008). The table below was developed to show and predict the loss of endemic and indigenous plant species (land areas occupied by these plant species) that have been used for feeding in Melanesian (e.g., Solomon Islands, Fiji, Papua New Guinea) countries. These plant species have been declining due to climatic changes happening in our environment.  (James, 2008).
Whereas an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can rapidly boost the growth rate of green matter (NACCC, 2007). However, these rapid growths of green matter can significantly degrade pastoral nutritional value. Thus, ruminant animals won't receive enough nutrients and pastures that they will need for their growth, maintenance, and reproduction.
Sea level rise and storm surges can cause incursions in saltwater which harms the food products for livestock species and humans. These saltwater incursions include a large concentration of sea salts, involving sulfate, which can eventually change the processes of anaerobic microbial act and composition of the community of plants (Hopfensperger et al., 2014). In the case of chicken livestock production, Fiji (one of the South Pacific Island Countries), increasing in population and demand for chicken meat has enforced many companies to provide breeds at a fast-growing rate, so that they can meet their consumer's needs. However, this is also reduced when climatic changes occur, whereby, extreme weather events cause reduced availability of feed resources which in turn affects the chicken bred diets leading to a decline in their quality and quantity (Vermeulen, 2014).

Marine Feed Resources
Marine species existence is highly under threat due to climatic changes occurring rapidly. For instance, rise in the sea level, acidification of the ocean; turbidity increase due to coastal water flooding can gradually decrease the availability of seagrasses that are the main diet of sea cow creatures (Masini et al., 2001). Hence, the availability of fewer food resources will cause the sea cow population more susceptible to starvation which will either result in, poor growth, migration of the species or extinction.
Similarly, climate change also affects the tuna fish population in the Pacific region. Many of the Pacific regime countries obtain their major GDP through tuna fisheries production (Bell et al., 2011). According to Gillett (1997), there are 4 main areas of tuna fisheries which includes the Eastern Pacific, Western Indian Ocean, West Africa, and the Pacific Island Countries. Climatic changes like a rise in the temperature of the sea surface, a decline in the concentration of oxygen, and reduced zooplankton and phytoplankton availability can essentially change the feeding grounds and habitats of tuna in the Pacific countries (Cravatte et al., 2009). Therefore, this leads to the migration of tuna populations to other divisions and hence, this will affect the geographic distribution of the species of fish in the Pacific regime. Changes in feeding products will also reduce the healthier growth of fish species.

A Quarrel Between Human-Animal Feed Resources
Animal and Human conflicts for food resources are becoming more obvious and frequent in the Pacific Island Countries. These quarrels arise due to limited space and feed resources between animals (livestock and marine) and human species. Climatic changes such as droughts, sea-level rise and cyclones lead to resource scarcity which eventually increases the competition between these two species. Clark et al. (2013) have illustrated in one of the reports that the relationship lies between the extinction of pig species and area of land, in which he explained the competition for food led to the extinction of piggeries. Thus, to reduce this competition, humans   conditions of water for their reproduction since they reproduce outside their body. These kinds of animals rely on a particular condition that signals their mating season. Temperature, light, salinity and acidity provide the right time to mate, thus climatic changes influencing these factors affect the mating period as a whole]. Schiff (2020) also mentioned "that many fish, including salmon, bluefin tuna, and swordfish, rely heavily on temperature to signal spawning, the release of eggs and sperm into the water", [Several fish species involving tuna fish, salmon and others depend on the temperature to indicate spawning (egg and sperm release in water]). An increase in the temperature level will indicate earlier development of reproduction in the species that spawn during spring and thus, shortening the period of spawning, which results in less mating rate. The ocean absorbs gas from the atmosphere, that is, carbon dioxide, but chemical reactions that occur between carbon dioxide and water produce and increase the acidity in the ocean, influencing the function of pheromones (love potion) which is used to attract mates. Therefore, these conditions affect the reproductive system and its period which later reduces the population size of a marine organism (Schiff, 2020).

Impact of Climate Change on Animal Mortality?
Numerous studies have indicated that climate change can harm animal health as well which later contributes to increased mortality. The effect can be either direct or indirect which may be due to primarily alterations in the environment, including relative humidity, air temperature, precipitation, and the frequency of these extreme events (Forastiere, 2010).

Direct Effects of Climate Change
Listed below are the direct effects of climate change on animal health.

Metabolic Disorder Effects
Animals (homoeothermic) react to increased temperature by boosting the heat loss and declining the production of heat for them to avoid high body temperature. Such reactions involve sweating and respiratory rate increase and a decline in the intake of food. These occurrences define significant contribution to the event of metabolic disorders in animals that are stressed through heat. Thus, this heat stress leads to lameness in beef and dairy cows (Shearer, 1999). Feed intake reduction collaborative with the boosted expenditure of energy for maintenance can highly affect the energy balance in an animal's body which in return will cause the animals to lose bodyweight and thus, the rapid occurrence of these events will, later on, contribute to animal mortality (Lacetera et al., 2002).

Oxidative Stress Effects
Pathological conditions like animal production and individual welfare may be affected by oxidative stresses (Lykkesfeldt &Svendsen, 2007). This event usually occurs when there is an imbalance between antioxidants and oxidants. From the past years, (2002 onwards) there has been a great interest in the research of heat stress that induces oxidative effects in farm animals, thus, leading to unhealthier conditions that result in mortality (Bernabucci et al., 2002).

Suppression of Immune System
The evolvement of the immune system in many animals has helped them to halter the invasion of pathogens in their body. However, heat stress can influence the immune system vastly, whereby; it can impair the immune functions in animals producing food (Lacetera, 2012). However, influencing the immune system through heat stress depends on different types of breeds, species, age, genotype intensity and duration of animals exposed to unfavourable conditions. The suppression of the immune system leads to infections, which breaks the efficiency of the reproductive system and may cause a decline in animal welfare and increase the usage of anti-microbial. When there is high usage of antimicrobials, the pathogens start to become resistant and hence, they cause more infections.

Death
Numerous studies have reported a greater chance of mortality during hot seasons and extreme weather conditions. Heatstroke, heat cramps, heat exhaustion and organ dysfunctions are all caused by high-temperature events. These complexities appear when the temperature of the body increases 3-4 o C above the normal body temperature. According to Purusothaman et al. (2008), the mortality rate of Mecheri sheep occurs when it is the time of summer. Another series of studies were described by (Hahn & Mader, 1997), whereby, they also found that the mortality rate of livestock increases during extreme heat-wave events.

Indirect Effects of Climate Change
As discussed earlier, climatic changes affect the distribution and biology of infectious diseases like a vector-borne diseases. For instance, precipitation changes, temperature boosting, and relative humidity will jas.ccsenet.org Vol. 14, No. 3; influence more reproduction of insects leading to higher population density. Therefore, diseases that are transmitted by insects, may mobilize themselves from their natural habitat to other countries. Wittmann et al. (2001) described an increase of temperature level by 2 degrees indicates a large spread of Culicids' imicola, which defines the main bluetongue virus vector. This virus stimulates arthropod-borne disease that affects wild and domestic ruminants. Therefore, increasing the mortality rate in livestock species.

Way Forward
There have been many aspects of climatic changes that have affected the animal production sector in several ways and so Fiji citizens and its government-created possible ways to overcome these scenarios not only in the present time but in future as well.

Solution for Livestock and other Terrestrial Organisms
Below are some of the methods carried out to revive the situations of climatic changes.
9.1.1 Workshop-Carried Out in Nabua, Suva Based on Adaptation in the Livestock Sector by SPC (2011) In this workshop, group division was carried out between the participants who were assigned to obtain the adaptation methods for each climate change in sectors such as cattle, dairy, local pigs, broilers and layers, small ruminants and lastly, local poultry. They were able to determine and map the risks and threats of the climatic hazards, such as droughts, sea-level rise, rise in the temperature value, flooding, and cyclones. Through their mapping of research, they were able to indicate some of the adaptation ways for futuristic benefits in the livestock sector, which includes.


Cattle: containing those crossbreeds which are tolerant to heat, lower exposure to disease infections, tolerant to drought and heat stress as well. Secondly, maintaining maximum availability and quality through water management practices by establishing well gutters or tanks and new ways to obtain water resources.  Swine: obtaining good house locations and designs. Likewise, good water management practices as well such as water tanks, water pumps and boreholes. Proper sanitation and hygiene with good husbandry practices like observing the rates of stock, managing the feeding process, and keeping appropriate records were also determined by the participants.  Commercial poultry: improving the feeding availability that is highly nutritional and can replace compound feeds. Secondly, designing shed areas associated with climate vulnerabilities so that poultry site areas could be improved for their production. Like cattle breeds, the participants also determined that resistant breeds should be more to survive climatic hazards.

Projected Climate Change Impacts on Animal Production
Through research, it has been recorded that highly output breeds that were introduced in the Pacific region including Fiji are not well tolerated and adapted to heat stress and other climatic conditions (Frank et al., 2001). Thereby, research and evaluations were carried out to bring betterments in animal production through projecting climatic impacts which will help later in determining what to be done before any climatic conditions will arise again and destroy our animal species in Fiji and the Pacific as a whole.
Many farmers have already started to practice mixed crop production with the livestock system in terms of their knowledge. Adding on to that some other aspects have been determined to adapt for climatic conditions such as breeding (bringing of new traits that are well adapted), adaptation to feeding and nutrition's and shelter and water management practices (Thornton et al., 2009;SPC, 2011). Below is Table 5 that shows the projected impacts of climate change.

Rising sea level
Saltwater intrusion into groundwater will reduce potable drinking supplies for livestock and impact on quality and quantity of available feed.
Some coastal land may become unsuitable for agricultural production.
Increasing stock densities and closer human/animal contact with increased risk of disease transfer especially on smaller atolls.
Further reduction of land suitable for agricultural production. The concentration of agricultural production in the remaining areas. Greater reliance on food imports.

Increasing temperature
Minimal effect on indigenous locally adapted breeds. Survival of native bee species adapted to cooler temperatures of higher elevations may be compromised with impacts on the survival of plant species dependent on these species for pollination.
Actual temperature tolerances are unknown. Changes in the geographical extent, population, life cycle and transmission of livestock diseases and pests depend on the specific temperature tolerances.
Temperature gains of up to 2.0 °C may lead to species/breed substitution, especially of temperate breeds/species. Seasonal and spatial distribution, composition and patterns of forage species will change. With the global production of maize and other coarse grains likely to be adversely affected by higher temperatures, climate change could have a significant impact on the availability/reliability of local livestock feed. As for 2030 re pest and disease impacts. Increased risk of food-borne disease-related illness.
As for 2050. Temperature gains of up to 4 °C are likely to require species/breed substitution. Livestock with low-temperature comfort zones such as Bos taurus dairy breeds and chickens are particularly vulnerable.

Heatwaves
Potential to reduce the productivity of introduced temperate latitude breeds although in commercial/semi-commercial systems the effects can be managed through climate control and other practices. Provision of shelter and water will be necessary for traditional systems to avoid a reduction in production and/or stock death Increased likelihood of animal death especially in tethered or confined traditional production systems. Commercial systems will need to invest more in cooling systems to avoid substantial loss of stock.
As for 2030. Likely need for species/ breed substitution.

More frequent and intense droughts
Reduction in the quality and quantity of available forage. Seasonal and spatial distribution, composition and patterns of forage species will change. Increased grazing pressure on areas where feed is available may lead to environmental side effects (e.g., erosion) and increased risk of disease transfer. Reduced quality and quantity of drinking water. Increased competition between various water users.

As for 2030
As for 2030

More frequent and intense floods, higher rainfall
Infrastructure damage (roads, buildings, fences, etc.). Increased human and animal health risk from waterborne diseases. Reduced animal mobility. Reduced feed availability and quality through flooding and spoilage of stored feed.

As for 2030
As for 2030 Increasing CO 2 concentration Unknown Unknown Reduction in the quality and composition of forage/ feed types due to a gradual shift from C3 to C4 species. Increased lignification of plant tissue (i.e., reduced quality).

Solution and Adaptations for Marine Organisms
Effective management of fisheries and other marine organism sectors can be obtained through implementing climatic resilient organisms (Hilborn et al., 2011). The management involves numerous tasks that should aim to enhance the sustainable use of marine organisms such as fish and crabs to diversify societal goals. Managing the marine organisms concerning adverse climatic effects is hence a special decision-making process whereby, additional risks and threats must also be addressed which will, later, help in performing good management practices against extreme climatic events. Such management practices include:  Planning and implementing phase: this involves the understandability of risks that occur due to climatic changes on marine organisms, assessing those risks, evaluating the final assessment done and identifying potential hazard managements that can act upon the climatic conditions. Then, implementing those management methods into action and observing if those practices are able beneficial for the adaptation of marine organisms or not.  Adaptive management approaches: this considers the management of resources as experiments, through which the managers can learn and make corrective changes such as policies (Walters, 1986). The systems for management practices against extreme climatic events have been designed to fluctuate the oceanic resources for better adaptation between marine organisms. However, climatic changes rule over these assumptions by changing the resource availability of the species. However, it is very important to have clear adaptation measurements to recover from such events happening around the ocean. For instance, coastal habitats of fisheries have been highly impacted through climatic changes in coastal areas and overfishing as well, thus, educating fishermen and individuals not to overfish may reverse the degradation of habitats and increase their populations leading to higher adaptation of the species towards climatic changes and thus, both the coastal zone and fisheries have been managed properly. Thereby, the above practices implemented show an effective way of overcoming climatic events that are happening around Fiji.

Conclusion
As discussed in the above content, climate change can highly affect livestock, other terrestrial and marine organisms' production in numerous ways leading to a decline in their feeding quality, growth, health conditions, and productivity which later results in behavior changes and mortality. These degradations happening in the animal production sector not only affect the livelihood of many individuals in Fiji but also influences and decreases the economic growth of the country and other areas of the Pacific region. Extreme weather events have been happening over many decades, yet we haven't been able to recover from the past events which bring into the necessity of doing such measurements that can not only help in recovering from the past events but can also help in the future for retaining the animal species around us.
Consequently, the Government of Fiji associated with the Secretariat of Pacific Community developed strategies like workshops to implement the risk of climatic hazards and how to overcome those scenarios. These workshops, predictions made for future climatic conditions and adaptive methods will not only help the government to revive from these climatic conditions but will also educate farmers performing animal production to practice safer management practices to fight against extreme weather conditions.