Ethnic Group , Age and Gender Differences in Social Adjustment of Teenagers in Nigeria

The study investigated ethnic group, age and gender differences in social adjustment of teenagers in Nigeria. A total of 1,500 male and female Secondary School students from three minority ethnic groups, the Tiv, the Ogoni and the Yala, were used for the study. The participants were 750 Junior Secondary three (JS III, 375 males and 375 females, 13-15 years) with a mean age of 14 years, and 750 Senior, Secondary three (SS.III, 375 males and 375 females; 16-18 years) with a mean age of 17 years. The Social Adjustment Scale developed and validated by the researcher was used to test the social adjustment of students. Results showed, that there was significant ethnic group difference (F2, 1488) = 8.86 P< 001, and age difference (F1, 1488) = 7.41 P < .04 in the social adjustment of teenagers. The interaction effect, of ethnicity x age was significant (F2, 1488)= 3.9 P < .04, age x gender interaction was significant (F1,1488) = 5.03 p<.04.Ethnicity x age x gender interaction also significant (F2, 1488)=4.03p<.04 Scheffe test of comparison showed that Ogoni teenagers scored highest in the social adjustment scale.


Introduction
On the issue of social adjustment, Dix (1991), Hetherington and Hagen (1997), Davis and Rhodes (1994) observed that human existence without social setup can hardly be imagined.These authors indicated that the foundation of social development and adjustment are laid in the family where the individual had the first social interaction and this has a lot of influence on the person's letter life.Bronfenbrenner, (1986) discovered many social structures and systems in the world of human; and observed that each person is significantly affected by interactions between and among a number of overlapping ecosystems.Nelson and bloom (1997) observed that the early development of motor skills, language, self-confidence, role play and problem solving abilities, are the products of child rearing styles, familial interaction and genetic predisposition and these qualities of the individual enhance the social and cognitive development, performance in school and adjustment in way situation (Lazarus, 1976).Rapport (1969) affirmed that adjustment remains a highly functional or serviceable word in psychology because it concerns the many ways in which an individual manages his/her social affairs.So, behaviour has the function of reflecting demands made upon a person by the environment.For example people's clothing pattern varies with the climate in which they live.It represents an adjustment to the weather and has the functions of helping to maintain a relatively constant body temperature and making people feel more comfortable.
Social adjustment involves charges in the individual's relationship with other people and changes in emotions.Santrock (1995) observed that on infant's smile in response to his/her mother's touch, a boy's aggressive attack on a playmate, a girl's development of assertiveness and the affection of elderly couple, all reflected the role of social development and adjustment.Baldwin (1980) discovered the role of companionships and observed that some infants cry when they are left alone, but if someone comes to be with them, they stop crying.And an infant coos to welcome the mother or caregiver and indicates the desire to be with her/him.Schrest and Wallace (1967) observed that every culture provides both prescription and proscriptions for behaviour; systems of rewards and sanctions are very often specified.In Ogoni land of Nigeria, the initiation of boys and girls into different rites of koo and yaa are cultural values that are ever static and the growing individuals are obliged to adjust to there values and others.Smith, Sarason and Sarason (1986) identified intuitional and transitional events that can affect the adjustment pattern of the teenagers.Situational adjustment is the necessary response to changes in environment circumstances that are stress producing for instance sudden illness or death of a loved one, natural disaster, incessant political instability and war.Transitional adjustment is the need to accommodate to a new situation caused by movement to a new life developmental stage.
Adjustment is an innate psychological disposition to cope with challenges confronting one in any given situation or environment and the innate strength to accommodate any possible outcome or changes.The psychological concept of adjustment explains the teenagers struggle to identify with his/her ethnic groups way of life of behaviour Among living beings, human being has the highest capacity to adjust to new situations.For instance, social adjustment is required, when the individual emerges from the womb to the world of activities, greeted family ties, enters schools, enters labour market convocational choice; enters marital life and starts rearing children.Adjustment is required even when one leaves an old residence to a new one.The milestone of transition and adjustment humans go through in their developmental stages is of great concern and gives due to what people adjust to so in all there is adjustment to normal life events as well as idiosyncrasies (Nwoke, 2004).
The purpose of this study was to investigate ethnicity, age and gender differences in the social adjustment among the teenagers from three minority ethnic groups in Nigeria.Adjustment in this study refers to the pattern of effective social adaptation of teenagers in the context of the values prevalent in the teenager's ethnic groups.
Values are: 1) Early marriage, pattern of production and related practices.
2) Rites of passage into adulthood as prevalent in the groups studied and indicated by the scores obtained by participants in the social adjustment scale used in this study.

Ethnic Groups
Ethnic group is based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion and language.Every human being is a member of an ethnic group.An individual's ethnic identity reflects his/her deliberate decision to identify with an ancestor or ancestral group.Ethnic group factors and cultural factors are interwoven and they have vital influence on the life of the individual (Chukwuagguh, 1998, Myers, 2002).Culture involves the behaviour patterns, beliefs and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation through child-rearing practices.The individual's personality is the end product of the interaction between biological factors and the experiential factors that are in part culturally determined (Phinney andAlipura, 1990, Schrest andWallace, 1976) In this present study three minority ethnic groups were studied and they include: The Tiv of Benue State, the Ogoni of Rivers State and the Yala of Cross-Rivers State all in Nigeria.

Social custom
Originally, there was only one form of marriage sanctioned by Tiv and was regarded as real or best marriage, that type of marriage was called Exchange marriage.Exchange marriage is a situation whereby a man exchanged his blood sister with the blood brother of the woman he wanted to marry.A woman married by exchange becomes a full member of the family, but a woman married in any other way is not regarded.If a woman married by exchange should give birth in her father's house, the after birth will be taken home carefully and be buried in the compound of the husband; whereas in the case of any other marriage, it would be taken to her father's house, if she did not go home to her father to give birth (Downess, 1933) The Tiv practice monogamy, polygamy and concubinage.Wegh (1994) observed that Tiv type of concubinage is such that as men keep women they fancied outside their matrimonial homes, women also keep rich men they fancied outside their marital homes.However, the key reason for official marriage among Tiv whether by exchange or by dowry is for procreation.Any married woman who did not bear children is returned back to her father's house.Any fruitful woman in terms of childbearing attracts new dowry to her father's family any time she gives birth to a child (Wegh, 1994, Nwoke, 2004).
By occupation, Tiv people are farmers, hunters and fishers.Tiv farmland is held sacred and any external encroachment causes provocation or war.They introduce their children to the way of life at the age of five years.
The key cultural values Tiv held prominent are farmland and marriage for procreation.Tiv belief in the supreme God whom they call Aondo, they also believe in witch craft and practice it.

The Ogoni People
Ogoni land is located in Rivers State of Nigeria.The Ogoni are the earliest settler in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria.Loolo (1981) suggested that the Ogoni might have originated from Ghana by accident during the thriving trade in slaves.

Social custom
The Ogoni value their "Koo" and "Yaa" rites of passage into man hood and womanhood.They practice monogamy, polygamy and concubinage like Tiv.They hold 'Sira' culture prominent.Sira culture is a situation whereby one of the girls stays in the father's house and begets children from any man she fancies.They also practice woman husband, whereby a woman who is tried of bearing children or a barren woman, marries a girl and gives to her husband or any male in the family for procreation.They practice "were" beast affinity.The Ogoni love their witch craft, magic arts and masquerade cults.By occupation they are farmers, hunters, canoe builders and fishers and introduce their children into their way of life as early as five years (Nwideeduh 1975(Nwideeduh , 1998) ) 1

.6 Yala People and social custom
The Yala people are found in the Cross River State of Nigeria.Like the Tiv and Ogonis, Yalas are predominantly farmers.They initiate their children in the way of life at the age of five years.As part of their occupation, they bake salt cake for sale.They practice what they call "queen dancer", this is a situation whereby a girl of about five years is chosen and left in an enclosure, under the guidance of a mistress, who teaches her how to dance the intricate steps of a queen.They practice wrestling and acrobatic displays.Yala people believe in the Supreme God, little gods, goddesses and witch craft.In marriage, they practice monogamy, polygamy and concubinage.(Onah 1998).

Participants
Participants were 1,500 male and female secondary school students (750 boys, 750 girls from the three minority ethnic groups studied.The participants comprised junior secondary school class three students and senior secondary class three students (375 boys, 375 girls) respectively.Five secondary schools were stratified from each ethnic group and 100 students were randomly sampled from each school, so 500 participants from each ethnic group (250 boys, 250 girls).From the junior class (125 boys, 125 girls) and from the senior class (125 boys, 125 girls) participated in the study.The age range of the junior participants was 13-15 years with the mean age of 14 years and that of the senior participants was 16-18 years, with the mean age of 17 years.

Instrument
Social Adjustment Scale (SAS) developed and validated by the researcher was used for the study.The initial items for the social adjustment questionnaire were formulated after serious dialogue, discussion and interviews with some knowledgeable people from the ethnic group studied.The purpose of the instrument was to formulate values prevalent in the ethnic groups in a scale for testing social adjustment of the teenagers in Nigeria.The instrument was given to six experts in the field of social sciences and education to judge for the face and content validities.Five (83.3%) of them endorsed the instrument as having face and content validities.All items represented statements to which the participants responded on a 3-point Likert type format of True (3) Not sure (2) and False (1).
The score ranged from 30-90 points with a mean score of 45 points.If a participant scored above 45 points, his/her social adjustment was favourable, if below 45 points his/her adjustment was not favourable.
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was employed for factor analysis.Twenty-eight (28) of the original 34 items were factorially strong.Further analysis using Split half method and Cronbach Alfa yielded coefficient, ranging from 0.34 to 0.68.The Alpha was .88;this indicated that SAS is reliable instrument for measuring Social adjustment using Nigeria teenage secondary school subjects.

Procedure
A preliminary discussion was held with some knowledge members of each ethnic group surveyed.This made it possible to determine how best to sample the groups to ensure adequate representation.Since 500 participants were sampled from each ethnic group, five secondary schools that had Junior Secondary class three and Senior Secondary class three were selected.From each of these schools, 100 students, 50 Junior Secondary class three and Senior Secondary class three (25 boys and 25 girls) were sampled.The sample size for each ethnic group was drawn to reflect gender composition.Thus in each ethnic group, one all boys' boarding school was selected and 100 students (50 JS 111 and 50 SS111) were randomly sampled.In the same vein, one all girls' boarding school was selected and 100 students, (50 JS 111 and 50 SS 111) were randomly sampled.Similarly, in each ethnic group, one co-educational boarding school was selected and 100 students were thus sampled: 50(JS 111; 25 boys, 25 girls), 50 (SS 111, 25 boys, 25 girls).Then two co-educational (Day secondary schools) were sampled and 100 students, 50(JS 111; 25 boys, 25 girls) 50 (SS 111; 25 boys, 25 girls) from each school.
In each of the selected schools in each ethnic group, the target populations (JS 111& SS 111 students) were gathered together in the school hall.With the help of four research assistants, using the systematic random sampling, the sample sizes were obtained and the rest of the students were asked to go back to their classes.Then the researcher and the four research assistants arranged the seats in the hall and demarcated the hall with tables, so the JS 111 and SS111 students sat far apart.Within ten minutes the questionnaires were completed and were collected.All the participants freely participated in the test.

Design
A three factor comprising (ethnic group, age and gender; 3x2x2) design was used.Ethnic group 3 (Tiv, Ogoni and Yala), Age 2 (JS III.13-15 years, SS III: 16-18 years) and gender 2 (School boys and School girls) This factor design is made up of all possible combinations of all the levels of independent variables with the assumption that all the participants are randomly assigned in equal numbers( e.g., Keppel &Zedeck,1989).

Statistics
The major statistic used was ANOVA.Descriptive statistic was used for the means; the Scheffe-test of comparison was used for multiple comparisons on interaction effects.

Results
The data in table 1 showed that Ogoni participants had the highest mean score (M) = 74.05,SD = 403, the Tiv, had M = 72.04,SD = 3.81 and Yala had M = 70.07,SD = 3.77.The table also showed that SS III participants scored higher than the JS III with mean score 73.34 for SS III and 71.56 for JS.III.The table indicated also that there is a slight difference between male and female teenagers in their social adjustment with mean scores of 72.29 for females and 72.21 for males.(see appendix section, table 1) The results in Table 2 indicated that there is significant difference among ethnic groups in the social adjustment of teenagers.F(2,1488)=8.86p<.001.There was also significant age difference in the social adjustment of teenagers F (1, 1488) =7.41 P<.04.There was no significant gender difference in the social adjustment of teenagers.F(1,1488)= 1.16.p<.31 Ethnic group x Age interaction on social adjustment of teenagers was significant.F (2, 1488)= 3.9 P,.04.Ethnic group x gender interaction was not significant F (2, 1488) = 1.54 p<.24 Age x gender interaction on social adjustment of teenagers was significant F (2, 1488) = 5.03 P<.04.Ethnic group x Age x Gender interaction on social adjustment of teenager was significant F (2, 1488) = 4.03 P<.04.(see appendix section, table 2) Result in table 3, showed that Ogoni teenagers significantly differed from Yala and Tiv teenagers in their social adjustment.The pattern of the mean differences shows that the Ogonis are more adjusted p<.001 (see appendix section, table 3)

Discussion
The findings of this present study indicate that teenagers from the three Ethnic groups differed significantly in their social adjustment pattern.More prominent were the Ogoni teenagers who had the highest mean score (M = 74.05,SD = 4.03) and therefore seemed much better adjusted socially than their Tiv and Yala counterparts.These current findings seem to suggest that the values held by ethnic groups strongly influence the total personality development of teenagers and their social adjustment patterns.The findings of this present study tend to support Berger and Thompson (1998), Myers (2002) who reported that values prevalent in any ethnic group or culture could affect the personality development and adjustment pattern of individuals.
The findings of this present study support Gbenenye, (1998) who observed that in Ogoniland, "Yaa" and "Koo" are cultural rites of initiation into manhood and womanhood and an Ogoni man is ready to spend a treasure in the initiation ceremony of his children.Based on the current findings an Ogoni man can invest more on the initiation ceremony of his children than to invest in their education.This finding was buttressed by Nwideeduh, (1998) who observed that to change an Ogoni man's mind from "Koo" and "Yaa" cultural initiation would mean turning the culture upside down or to obliterate Ogoni culture from the universe.The present findings also showed that the Ogoni females attach much importance to "sira-cultural" practice.This finding supports Nwideeduh who in an interview (2002( , in Nwoke, 2004) stated that to change an Ogoni women's socio-cognition from their "sira cultural" practice, would mean erasing Ogoni female folk from Ogoni tribe.
Based on the findings of this current study cultural value systems held by the ethnic groups tend to affect their total personality development and adjustment.This finding supports Nsamenang, (1992) and Chukwuagguh, (1998) who observed that the hidden aspects of a culture which comprise beliefs, ideals, values, assumptions and modes of thought which members of a group adhere to are covertly transmitted or inculcated to generations of the offspring and this governs not only the behaviour of the group, but also their socio-cognitive view in a profound manner.Furthermore, the findings of this study show that the youngsters adhere to the cultural values laid down by their groups.This finding supports Wegh, (1994), Feldman, (1999), Halgin and Whitbourne, (2000) who observe that no child would live above what the culture or ethnic group has laid down for the individual child.So the findings affirm the notion that information, which the teenagers derive from their cultural norms, enables them adapt effectively to their environments.In this sense, the social adjustment of teenagers depends on what the ethnic group or culture has laid down as values for the growing individual.
Evidence obtained in this study regarding social adjustment showed that the three ethnic groups attach much importance to age.There are specific ages at which the growing individual is initiated into one or other cultural values.This is manifested in the significant age differences.F(1,1488)= 7.41 P<.04.The findings of this study showed no significant gender difference on the social adjustment of teenagers across ethnic group.The interviews and discussions with some knowledgeable persons in the three ethnic groups (Gaji & Ukeli from Tiv, Dedua and Nwudeeduh from Ogoni and Ukpo and Yegwa from Yala) pointed in that direction, when they disclosed some ethno-cultural similarities between the ethnic groups concerning gender issues.This present study supports Wegh, (1994), Gbenenye, (1998) and Onah (1998) who observed that there exist some sorts of loose ends in some aspects of the values prevalent in the three ethnic groups, which affect the people irrespective of their gender.These facts seem to support the reason why that in this study gender had no significant influence on social adjustment of teenagers.
However, in Table I, the Ogoni teenagers had the highest mean score of 74.05.The probable reason for this could be attributed to some values held by the Ogonis, which are so static and have not been influenced by modernity, science and technology or Christianity.This present finding supports Nwideeduh, (1998), who observed that Ogoni is so glued to her cultural values that the influence of Christianity or modernity has not impinged on them.
On the interaction effect, the present study showed that ethnic group and age jointly influence social adjustment of teenagers, F (2, 1488) = 4.03 P<.04.(Seen fig. 1 appendix A) The current findings seem to suggest that ethnic groups have strong norms that guide individuals according to age level.The three ethnic groups introduce their children to the way of their life at about age of five years.The present study revealed that age x gender interaction had significant difference on the social adjustment of teenagers.F(2,1488) = 5.03 P<,04.(Seen fig. 2 appendix B) This finding seems to suggest the influence of ethno-cultural preferences, whereby certain values are better handled by the males or females.For example the finding supports Wegh, (1994) who observed that among the Tiv millipede is never driven away by female of whatever age but males can.
Ethnic group x age x gender interaction had significant difference on social adjustment of teenagers.F (2, 1488)=4.03P<.04.(see fig. 3 appendix C) The finding seems to suggest that ethnic group is the repository of the norms that govern the lives of its members irrespective of age and gender.This finding also supports Onah,(1998), Jov,(2000) Nwoke, (2004), who observed that members of ethnic group, irrespective of age and gender are obliged to be cognizant of the values prevalent in their cultures for healthy individual and group adjustment.
The findings relating to ethnic group differences imply that the values which people hold should be properly examined, because such values socially affect the developing individuals.The findings provide a basis for the explanation, which seems to suggest that teenage males and females attach equal importance to cultural values and adjust equally to such values.The findings revealed a significant difference among the three ethnic groups in their social adjustment.The present findings support Dasen, (1972), who viewed that each ethnic group has a distinct way of unfolding her mores to her members, especially to the youngsters.
One of the major conclusions of this study is that cultural norms enable the growing individuals adapt effectively to his/her environment.
The major limitation is in terms of the method employed in this research.A purely quantitative method relying on surveys may be inadequate in understanding the teenager's social problems.Social adjustment can be expressed in both qualitative and quantitative terms.Thus some qualitative methodology involving interaction with participants would have allowed for direct observations that would have improved the internal validity of the findings.The table shows that Ogoni participants had the highest mean score, 74.05 than their Tiv and Yala counterparts and seem better adjusted.The table also shows that the senior secondary three (SS111) participants scored higher than the junior secondary three (JS111) participants and seem better adjusted.Table 1 equally shows that male and female participants slightly differed in their social adjustment pattern.  2 shows the significant evidence of ethnic group and age influence on social adjustment of teenagers, while gender has no significant influence on the adjustment of teenagers.I like mixing with boys and girls. 5.
My people spend a huge sum of money on cultural ceremonies.7.
I enjoy talking to people I don't know.8.
My people would like boys be trained for fighting, farming, fishing or hunting 10.
I agree with my mates in all issues.11.
My people prefer initiating their children into cultural values to their education.12.
In my place, boys go after girls for love making.13.
I do not like people who talk too much 14.
Girls in my place like going out at night looking for men.15.
Boys in my place, belong to masquerade cults as early as ten years.16.
I can take jokes from any one.17.
My people can be aggressive when provoked.18.
I do not like people who brag too much 19.
I take delight visiting people 20.
I cannot make friends easily 21.
I like mixing with boys of all ages.22.
In my place peers do not easily accept each other.23.
In my place people do not crack jokes 24.
I am gentle with people who abuse me 25.
People from my tribe easily fight those who call them names 26.
Rites of passage into adulthood are necessary for both males and females in my tribe.27.
I threat to beat my peers who abuse me.28.
I like mixing with girls in my locality.29.
I take initiative in discussing important social issues 30.
I cannot express myself in the public 31.
In my place a lot of cultural items are given to the family of the girl before marriage is contracted.32 I have no friends for of being duped.33 I my place boys elope with the girls they want to marry if they have no money to pay the bride price.34 In my tribe if a woman did not bear children, she is returned to her father

Table 1 .
Mean (M)scores in social adjustment of teenagers according to ethnicity, age and gender

Table 2 .
Way ANOVA Summary Table, Showing Ethnic Group, Age and Gender differences on Social Adjustment of Teenagers

Table 3 .
Scheffé test comparing the three ethnic groups on social adjustment of teenagers Table3compares the contribution of each ethnic group on the social adjustment of teenagers and Ogoni seem to have the highest influence on the teenagers' social adjustment.Figure 1.Graph showing the Scheffé test comparing Ethnicity X age interaction on social adjustment of teenagersThe present study showed that ethnicity and age jointly influenced social adjustment of teenagers.This current findings seem to suggest the fact that ethnicity has prescribed norms that guide individuals according to age level.Figure 2. Graph showing the Scheffé test comparing age x gender interaction on social adjustment of teenagersThe present study revealed age x gender interaction was significant in social adjustment of teenagers.This finding seems to suggest the influence of ethno-cultural preferences.Graph showing the Scheffé test comparing ethnicity x age x gender interaction on social adjustment of teenagersThe current study showed that ethnicity x age x gender interaction influence social adjustment of teenagers.This finding seems suggest that ethnicity is the repository of the norms that guide the lives of its members irrespective of age or gender.