Self-Directed Online Training for LSP Teachers: Challenges and Solutions in the LSP-Teoc.Pro Project

,


Introduction
This paper describes the Erasmus+ project LSP-TEOC.Pro (Note 1), which is aimed at the professional development of LSP (Languages for Specific Purposes) teachers in tertiary education institutions worldwide.The project stems from the consideration that ad hoc training programs for this specific community of teachers are very limited, and this appears to be a widespread phenomenon at an international level.Many LSP teachers across the world in tertiary education are responsible for very specialized LSP courses, without receiving any initial or ongoing training (Basturkmen, 2010;Anesa & Deyrich 2023).In LSP courses the emphasis is on specialized uses of the language (e.g., English for Legal, Business, Medical, or Technical purposes, inter alia) and on precise professional contexts and specific targets, but the needs of LSP teachers are only sporadically addressed.The project, thus, aims to fill an important pedagogical and educational gap which is often disregarded when planning and delivering courses.
More specifically, LSP-TEOC.Pro aims to respond to these needs by offering a free self-directed online LSP teacher training course, available worldwide, with the aim to contribute to the creation of more inclusive and efficient higher education systems as regards the languages applied to specialized fields.
First, the paper introduces the LSP-TEOC.Pro project and its development.The following section offers a wider reflection on the nature of self-directed courses and focuses on the role of computer self-efficacy and motivation in order to achieve successful course completion.Subsequently, concrete examples, drawing on one of the modules of the course, are offered in order to illustrate how the main challenges of self-directed online courses can be faced from a pedagogical and technical perspective.Exemplifications refer in particular to the module concerning materials evaluation and design, a key area of training in the LSP field.The work concludes with a discussion of future developments and the potential applications of the LSP-TEOC.Pro project.
Cukurova (Turkey).Its development followed the completion of a related project, TRAILS (Note 2), in which the majority of the partners had also been involved.
The main objective of LSP-TEOC.Pro was to develop a high quality, multilingual online training course for LSP teachers.Through the creation of a massive online open course (MOOC), the project would allow prospective, novice, and experienced teachers to deepen their knowledge of LSP teaching dynamics and processes, and develop and refine their teaching skills via new input and practice.The course was developed considering the emic perspective of the experienced teachers and of the trainee teachers (prospective and novice), whose feedback was also fundamental for the development of an effective course.
The LSP-TEOC.Pro project allowed for the creation of an online training program based on asynchronous learning dynamics, in that materials, instructions, and activities would be accessible at any time.Given the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, the creation of an online self-directed course has proven very valuable considering the unexpected issues related to social distancing in most educational settings.Also, beyond allowing participants to follow the lessons anywhere, at any time, and at any pace, an online course allows teachers to familiarize themselves with ICT usage, or refine their previous knowledge, which could have the secondary effect of encouraging the incorporation of ICT tools more easily into their own future teaching practices.LSP-TEOC.Pro provides theoretical information and practical procedures in order for participants to acquire the necessary skills for planning, delivering and evaluating LSP courses.The project started with the analysis of existing LSP teacher training courses available with a focus on their potential transferability into a self-directed online course.The methodology to be adopted for the development of the course was decided in the next phase and drew on didactic and pedagogic frameworks such as spaced learning, gamification, and item response theory.
The course consists of eight modules, each addressing a fundamental LSP topic, such as Needs Analysis, Lesson Planning or LSP Assessment.Each module is preceded by a clear indication of content, dedication time, and learning outcomes, in order to help users to plan their progression.It is suggested that users follow the order in which the modules are presented, but participants can choose to complete the modules non-chronologically, in order to tailor the course to their individual needs.Modules consist of three separate sections, some, or all, of which include quizzes to test progress, and within each module selected quizzes are 'unlocked' only when previous ones have been successfully completed.The total time estimated for completing the entire course is approximately 48 hours.However, participants are free to take as little, or as much, time as they need.Some modules contain an 'Optional' section at the end which is available for participants to deepen their knowledge of a topic, but which is not a requirement in order to complete the course.The separation of some modules into 'core' content (obligatory) and 'optional' content originated from the initial feedback when the consortium responded to comments that modules contained a lot of material and the estimated dedication time had been significantly underestimated.As a lack of time to complete materials, or the feeling of being overwhelmed, is extremely demotivating, this issue was immediately resolved.Participants are also at liberty to retake the entire course, or single modules, as many times as desired.
The main outcomes of the complete LSP-TEOC.Pro course (see https://lsp-teoc-pro.de) refer to the ability to understand a series of concepts such as: The developmental phase included the following steps: 1) Development of the "Course Content Module Development" script.
2) Preparation of the eight modules.
3) Development of the "Peer Review Course Content Evaluation Instrument".

5) Revision of the modules' content.
The macrostructure of each module was highly standardized in order to guarantee uniformity across the course.
Activities were planned following the principle of 'scaffolding', so that, while users are able to take any module in the order they prefer, the activities within each module are to be followed in a particular sequence in order to move from less cognitively-demanding activities to more challenging ones, and from activities which provided more support (e.g., in terms of provision of instructions and model answers) to less support (e.g., creation of own materials).More specifically, Section 1 of each module presents the main concepts of a particular topic in order to provide the essential theoretical input participants need to master.Section 2 allows the users to take the role of an LSP learner, and to familiarize themselves with the educational products that they will then need to actively create in Section 3, where participants assume the role of an LSP instructor.A wide range of activity types are included throughout each module, ranging from ones such as syllabus or materials evaluation, to lesson planning, to creating assessments, to contributing to forums, to creating needs analysis forms or post-course surveys, etc.In all phases there is a regular emphasis on the interconnection between the three sections, and users are constantly reminded of the relevance of the theoretical notions from Section 1, for the development of Sections 2 and 3.
The course content was created and integrated into an online learning management system (LMS), Moodle, and each member of the consortium was responsible for one of the eight modules.The members designed and produced the module, following the strict development guidelines established in terms of structure and content.Once completed, the modules were peer reviewed by another member of the consortium.
Each module was then checked for usability in preparation for the subsequent phase, the first piloting by selected external users (external users being participants connected to the consortium in some way but not previously involved in any stage of the project).In this phase pilotees were asked to keep a diary in order to provide feedback on the usability of the system and inform the consortium of any issues.Once this feedback was received, it was collated, and appropriate changes to the modules were made in terms of any technical issues, textual errors, inconsistences, or ambiguity of materials.Any changes were once again peer reviewed.After the implementation of these necessary amendments, the project underwent a larger scale piloting (Note 3).On receipt of the pilotee feedback from this phase, final edits were made to the modules' content.Throughout the process, a quality control procedure was adhered to by all members, which included a record of all changes approved and made.The complete course was then translated into the languages of the consortium, namely Croatian, English, French, German, Italian, Polish, Spanish, Slovenian, and Turkish (Note 4).Subsequently, the project underwent the learner analytics phase, focusing on the data gathered in the large-scale trialing phase, based on descriptive and inferential statistics.The course was made freely available for the public at large as Open Educational Resource (OER) in summer 2023.

Self-Directed Online Courses
Teacher training is considered as a re-credentialing mechanism to preserve and improve competency and skills.
Self-directed learning can help users to meet continuously changing professional requirements, but the very nature of self-directed learning has undergone significant transformations with the advent of digital and online technologies (Curran et al., 2019).Virtual learning environments (VLEs) can support learner self-direction, through which users can "master packages of predetermined material, at their own pace, without the aid of an instructor" (Piskurich, 1994, p. 4).Of course, self-directed learning can take place in traditional settings, but an LMS such as Moodle displays impressive potential and allows a vast amount of people, geographically dispersed, to be reached.
In online self-directed courses, learners have a high degree of independence in deciding which contents to address.This is not to neglect the importance of other participants in a learning process, such as instructors and peers, but to acknowledge that autonomy and independence can have practical and educational benefits.Moreover, even in environments where close proximity to others is lacking, the presence of a learning community can be perceived, and that can be encouraged, for instance, by the use of tools such as forums and discussion boards (Arbaugh & Hwang, 2006;Arbaugh, 2014).
It is well-established that computer self-efficacy and motivation to learn play an important role in self-directed online courses (Simmering, Posey, & Piccoli, 2009).More specifically, self-efficacy is traditionally defined as an individual's belief in their ability to carry out a certain task (Bandura, 1977(Bandura, , 1986(Bandura, , 1997)), and learning outcomes can be profoundly impacted by self-efficacy.When dealing with a course taking place via an online LMS, computer self-efficacy (Marakas, Yi, & Johnson, 1998, Note 5) may represent a prerequisite for the effective completion of the course.Moodle was the selected LMS for this project after considering different variables such as: accessibility, cost, familiarity, ease of use, and user-friendliness.
Computer self-efficacy can be positively correlated to online learning (Simmering, Posey, & Piccoli, 2009).Quite predictably, a student who displays high computer self-efficacy may be more inclined to follow and complete an online course.Thus, the choice of a widely-used online platform was strategic and offered the potential that a number of participants may already have some familiarity with it, and could therefore perhaps feel less intimidated by the technology.In addition, the use of Moodle does not require particular technical skills.Moreover, every section and every activity in each module was preceded by clear instructions explaining how the user should proceed from a technical point of view.
Motivation is another important construct in any learning process, but it seems particularly relevant in self-directed courses in that it appears to be a critical precursor to learning (Piccoli, Ahmad, & Ives, 2001).It has been suggested that motivation in a VLE is enhanced by structural frameworks that are not too formalized.Indeed, the lack of an instructor who, beyond being a facilitator of understanding, can also represent an evaluator, can generate less pressure than in a traditional classroom environment (Shroff et al., 2007).At the same time, however, in LSP-TEOC.Pro the instructors are visible, at least remotely, especially in the Section 1 input video presentations, which helps to convey the presence of a real instructor.In such videos the instructors, beyond providing the theoretical input needed for the completion of the later activities, constantly remind the participants of the reasons why such information is significant and stress the importance of certain concepts to achieve specific outcomes.This approach can also have a positive impact on motivation.
The motivation state may vary throughout the course, but the assortment of activities is meant to generate interest and curiosity.The course contains an in-depth look at a wide range of competencies needed for successful LSP teaching.Interest is maintained by a variety of materials and activities to complete, as well as a large number of specialisms covered, from wide-angled (e.g., Business English) to narrow-angled (e.g., Civil Law focusing on Negligence).Professional-looking materials with a consistent look also contribute to the validity of the course.Regular quizzes, with 'badges' awarded on successful completion, allow participants to consider their progress and the new knowledge acquired.Finally, the possibility of each individual participant to select their own 'path' through the modules enabled them to feel more autonomous.

Results
In LSP-TEOC.Pro the University Bergamo was responsible for the development of Module 5 (Note 6) on LSP Materials Evaluation and Design (Note 7) and, thus, the exemplifying illustrations offered in this section refer to that topic.
The module is preceded by an introduction defining the structure, the learning outcomes envisaged, and the approximate duration.All modules in the course are structured following the same pattern in order to guarantee uniformity and consistency and to allow user familiarity with the general structure of each topic.As mentioned above, the three sections are: Section 1 -Theoretical Input; Section 2 -Role of LSP learner; and Section 3 -Role of LSP teacher.In the particular case of Module 5, the core content was divided as follows:  Section 1 provides insights into the theoretical concepts underlying materials evaluation and materials adaptation (including the role of materials, predictive and retrospective evaluation, and rationales and methods for materials adaptation).


Section 2 takes users through materials evaluation in the role of an LSP user.Model answers are provided by the course developers so that participants can consult them when evaluating and adapting their own materials. Section 3 offers an opportunity to adopt the role of an LSP teacher and apply the competencies acquired in the previous two sections.Model answers are also made available (see https://moodle.lsp-teoc-pro.de,Note 8).
The learning outcomes expected by completing the core content are related to: mastering the criteria for the evaluation of LSP materials; gaining awareness of the advantages and disadvantages of adopting, adapting, and creating such materials; understanding and explaining the role of LSP materials in teaching and learning process.
Materials design is considered as 'optional content' for Module 5 and focuses on materials design and its envisaged learning outcomes include, inter alia, the ability to use digital and multimedia resources; mastering the concept of 'just-in-time' custom materials creation; and creating original LSP materials in the light of existing theoretical frameworks.The presence of core and optional content also represents a way of enhancing learner control while at the same time following a guided learning path.
LSP-TEOC.Pro aims at promoting the perception of the presence of a facilitator of learning in various ways.For instance, every topic is introduced by a video presentation with all slides provided.The presentation is as interactive as possible for something which is pre-filmed, and the presenter's face is always visible (Section 3).Their bionote is also present in order to allow users to familiarize themselves with the course developers involved.Moreover, all instructors are highly experienced qualified practitioners of LSP and the presence of biographical information can boost the credibility of the information provided, thus contributing to improving users' interest and trust in the quality of the course.Also, the variety of instructors, with different backgrounds and specializations, allows the enhancement of inclusivity and can contribute to generating curiosity and interest.Feedback from the large-scale trialing phase, revealed that the videos were particularly appreciated in terms of users' experience, especially when the speaker was able to create some form of interaction, for example by clearly pointing to specific slides or to a specific activity, or by asking the participant to pause the video and consider a certain question before moving on.These practices are simple to implement from a technical perspective, but they favor user's engagement and the feeling of interaction and involvement.
Figure 1.Video and bionote (quiz) (See https://moodle.lsp-teoc-pro.de/,Module 5) A quiz followed every one of the six input video presentations in Section 1 of Module 5 in order for participants to check learning and there was a final consolidation quiz at the end of Section 1 before participants could move onto the practical part of the module in Sections 2 and 3. Quizzes were not limited in the number of times participants could take them, although they had to be passed with a minimum grade before progress was allowed.This immediate feedback on learning was another motivating element contained in the modules and, when designing the course, quizzes were considered a fundamental part of the online learning experience.Users are also regularly encouraged to independently assess their learning outcomes, as this process can enhance self-reflexivity and self-efficacy.Model answers for all activities throughout Sections 2 and 3 were provided as a way for participants to compare their work and assess whether they had completed the activities effectively.
Finally, participants were given the chance to fill in a journal, which could further contribute to the development of self-reflective practices.Self-reflexivity in teaching, as in many professions, is fundamental to professional development but is often underperformed through a lack of mechanisms or time.Moreover, these basic activities can be easily transferred to offline contexts and to the classroom.

Conclusions
The LPS-TEOC.Pro project draws on the acknowledgement that nowadays LSP represents a prominent area in tertiary education, but the training of the staff involved in administering LSP courses is often lacking a clear structural and operational framework and is commonly left to an individual's dedication and intuition.The creation of an online self-directed LSP teaching course is timely in that it allows teachers around the world not only to develop new skills and to acquire autonomy in specific areas, such as materials evaluation and design, but also to enhance self-reflective processes and to master new tools to navigate their professional identity.In this regard, individual and collective awareness can support practitioners when facing new challenges, be they social, technological, or educational (Nordhall et al., 2020;Anesa & Deyrich, 2023).
In online self-directed courses motivation and computer self-efficacy are critical enablers.The absence of external motivation provided by instructors or peers and the lack of interaction with the other members of the learning community may lead to distraction and demotivation.However, the course is structured in such a way as to allow for the uploading of activities and materials which could potentially be checked and corrected by instructors.Moreover, tools such as forums can also generate a sense of community.Initial computer self-efficacy should be carefully considered and the choice of a familiar LMS can favor its enhancement.
When self-direction is involved, a clear understanding of the learning goals and objectives is fundamental.This is why learning outcomes are stated at the beginning of each module and are reinforced across the three different sections.Participants are also constantly encouraged to reflect upon the level of awareness of such objectives and evaluate their performance towards reaching them.
Through self-directed learning, by definition, users become the main decision makers in their learning process.However, the activities provided in LSP-TEOC.Pro are clearly planned and defined, so that such flexibility is integrated within a guided path of structured tasks.One of the main benefits of self-directed courses is their elasticity in terms of when and where learning can take place.In the case of LSP-TEOC.Pro, the course targets different groups of teachers, who may have busy schedules and may want to progress at a specific pace.
Another central feature is that this type of courses can cater to the real interests of users.The course provides training in different, although interrelated areas, and participants can move across them as they feel it is necessary, and this advantage tends to generate a sense of independence and self-confidence.This aspect is particularly relevant for the targets of this project in that, as demonstrated, options for professional development in the field of LSP teaching are scarce and teachers have clearly expressed the need for specific training in this area.
However, many complex challenges are related to self-direction in education and training.Given their heterogenous levels of ability and experience, some trainees may need further assistance in dealing with some of the activities.In order to face this challenge, in LSP-TEOC.Pro all activities are accompanied by clear instructions, as well as explanatory videos.Learning is self-assessed regularly via subsequent quizzes, which allow participants to verify the acquisition of the key concept before proceeding.
While, on the one hand, the course is highly standardized, on the other it offers a vast degree of flexibility.As participants come from a wide variety of specializations, the modules include activities related to a large number of different fields in order to be inclusive to all and users are at liberty to spend longer on some activities than others.Users can select the modules to do, and in the order that best meets their needs.The activities can be taken as many times as it is desired.The choice on how to proceed may depend on factors such as: previous training received, applicability to the course currently taught or to be taught, perceived usefulness, personal curiosity, etc.Of course, the evaluation of the benefits of the training will need further research in that such evaluation cannot be intended simply as a self-explanatory easily reified concept.A deeper focus on user satisfaction and learning analytics can provide further feedback for future developments of the course.
If the results are positive, in the future the course content could be translated into other languages in order to give access to an even wider population.It is however hypothesized that most LSP practitioners working in tertiary education could be able to access the English version, if their own language of instruction is not available yet.
The purpose of the course was informed by considerations of the role of online technology in training, problematizing it in light of broader societal, didactic, and educational perspectives and without the underlying assumption that VLE are unproblematic tools.Taken as a microcosm, this course is illustrative of the potentiality of online self-directed course in LSP teacher training.
Self-directed courses can empower individuals to assume increasingly more responsibility for decisions related to their learning endeavors.From an ontological perspective, this work does not intend self-directed learning and social-transformative education as mutually exclusive.I submit that self-direction has to be conceived as a further opportunity, which is not necessarily meant to substitute other forms of training, with which it could fruitfully coexist.Instead of being based on an idealistic emancipatory promise, deriving from an individualistic ontological and epistemological conception of the self, self-directed learning needs to be seen as one element that can still fit within a social transformative education paradigm, acknowledging the interdependence of the actors involved in the learning process.
The journal's policies adhere to the Core Practices established by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE).

Provenance and peer review
Not commissioned; externally double-blind peer reviewed.

Table 1 .
Overview of course content (as described in the course program, see https://lsp-teoc-pro.de/publications)