Hate Speech, incitamento all’odio , incitación al odio : EU Parallel Corpora, Legal Discourse, Metadiscourse and Translation

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Actually, as far as we know, a study on the metadiscursive features of hate speech has not been tackled. As an exception we can cite a study by Suciu and Mocofan, "Approaches to hate speech in cyberspace. A metadiscursive analysis" (2021) in which the authors present the results of a project aimed at creating an education campaign on intolerance in cyberspace that was conducted by first year students at the master's degree with a specialisation on Communication, public relations and digital media at Politehnica University of Timişoara, Romania. The study is a metadiscursive analysis of 47 papers, aiming at revealing the way in which students build and transmit a message about the problem of hate speech. The papers reflect the students' attitude towards the phenomenon known as cyberbullying, they are targeted at young people and are transmitted in the digital environment. The approach taken, based on two large groups of markers, i.e., textual and discursive-interactive ones, allowed the authors to identify certain particularities in the communication of the young people.
If the work just cited concentrated on an academic context, the present study focuses on a legal and institutional one, by investigating a series of hate speech-related EU documents in order to explore certain features of hate discourse and hate discourse-related phraseology, metadiscourse and translation issues in the English, Italian and Spanish versions of European Union texts. The quantitative and qualitative analysis will look at the use of peculiar language constructions in the three languages focusing on the features of metadiscourse (Hyland, 2019(Hyland, [2005), legal terminology and translation.

Corpus and Methodology
The corpus compiled ad hoc by the authors of the present paper includes 24 documents in total, 8 for each language (English, Italian and Spanish), which were selected from the EURLEX website, that is the main official access to European Union Law, and analysed through Sketch Engine, the corpus manager and text analysis software developed by Lexical Computing. We analyse English, Italian and Spanish documents but we consider the English ones to be the Source Texts, since European documents are mostly and firstly drafted in this language (Wagner, Bech, & Martínez, 2012), also because as underlined by Felici (2010, p. 103) when talking about EU translations: "given the increasing popularity of English, translators tend to choose the English versions as original source texts" (Note 1). Additionally, the present investigation uses parallel corpora because the authors are convinced that they "have a role to play in the translator training environment, that students can use parallel corpora to help them with translation and that the findings from corpus-based studies of parallel corpora can, and should, inform the design, and implementation of specialized translation courses" (Pearson, 2003). Furthermore, Baker (1995, p. 231) rightly states that the aim of using parallel texts in a corpus-based study should be "to establish objectively how translators overcome difficulties of translation in practice, and to use this evidence to provide realistic models for trainee translators".
The expression "hate speech" was used as a keyword to search in the title and in the texts; those documents in which the keyword was a hapax or presented just fewer than three occurrences were left out from the selection. A three-year period was covered, from 2019 to 2021, but the search provided an adequate number of documents concerning hate speech and hate crimes only for the year 2021, while for the other two years the documents obtained did not provide enough and relevant quantitative data dealing with the matter at stake here. This demonstrates the growing interest in the topic of hate speech by E.U legislation. Each document in the subcorpora is labeled as follows to indicate the name of the corpus to distinguish it from other corpora compiled ad hoc by the same authors on Sketch Engine: HS (for Hate Speech), the progressive number of the document in the parallel corpora, and its language (EN for English, IT for Italian and SP for Spanish), as shown in Table 1.  Tables 2, 3 and 4 show some of the quantitative data of the three corpora such as number of tokens, number of words or types and number of sentences. The type/token ratio was also calculated since it is a helpful measure of lexical variety within a text. As it is known, if the value obtained is closer to 1 (one), it means there is rich vocabulary content in the text. If the value obtained is closer to 0 (zero), it means that the vocabulary is fairly poor. If the value is equal to 1 (one), it means that the text is made up of just hapax legomena.    Vol. 13, No. 5;2023 4 The type/token ratio of each subcorpus is near to 1, which indicates that the vocabulary is rather rich and varied in each corpus. Although it can be noticed that the English value is slightly lower being 0.84 versus 0.86 in Italian and 0.87 in Spanish.
The methodology applied is based on corpus linguistics, legal discourse, metadiscourse and translation studies. First of all, the aboutness of the texts was taken into account by looking at the most frequent words, and in particular at the first 50 nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, as emerged from the Frequency lists produced by Sketch Engine. Later the concordances of the most frequent words were looked at, focusing on the left and right context of some specific frequent words related to hate speech, hate crimes, measures against them, and people involved.
The second part of the analysis focused on some specific metadiscursive features according to Hyland's classification of interactive and interactional features. This is Hyland's classification (The interpersonal model of metadiscourse) with the various categories and their functions: the interactive features help to guide the reader through the text and the interactional ones involve the reader in the text. Some legal terminology such as without prejudice to, in accordance with and according to, are all terms that function as metadiscoursive features, evidentials in particular for the category of interactive features. Their translations in Italian and Spanish are considered in order to understand and investigate the process of parallel text production in different languages in a European context. Then for interactional features, attitude markers, in particular those adjectives which bear an evaluative function, and the translation were looked at, as well.

Analysis and Discussion
As anticipated in the methodology section, the discussion section takes into consideration frequency lists, some keywords such as hate and measures, attitude markers such as effective, necessary, relevant and other adjectives modifying the keyword measures, evidentials, such as according to and in accordance with, and legal terminology such as without prejudice to and expressions referring to the people involved in hate crimes, such as criminals, perpetrators and victims. All these terms and expressions are always looked at considering their equivalents in Italian and Spanish and their occurrences in the translated texts.

Frequency Lists
Regarding the first 50 nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs we consider them to bear the character of representing the content, the matter at stake, the aboutness of the texts since they are the most frequently used in the documents.
The following tables present the most frequent words of each grammatical category: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs.
Among the nouns EU, member, woman, commission, right, gender, equality, hate, roma, crime, speech     Additionally, the word odio, the translation into Italian was analysed, and emerged that hate crime is generally translated as reati generati dall'odio, while hate speech is translated as discorso dell'odio, but also as incitamento all'odio. Furthermore odio can be odio online, odio di genere, odio misogino, odio razziale and odio xenofobo. Hate speech appears 12 times in English in the Italian corpus and is left untranslated.

Measure
The most relevant outcome about the keyword measures is the difference in the number of occurrences in the Italian corpus. As a matter of fact, it must be noticed that the word measures, that ranks number 34 in the English general word list, and number 40 in the Spanish one with medidas, does not appear among the first 50 words in the Italian sub-corpus. To be more precise, the term misure only ranks number 60 in the general frequency wordlist of this sub-corpus.
Therefore, a qualitative analysis was carried of the parallel concordance lines of the word measures to discover that in the Italian sub-corpus the word misure is not repeated anaphorically, as in the other two corpora, but it is found only at the beginning or the top of a numbered list or bulleted list but not repeated each time. As it can be seen in Excerpt (1), in the English version of document [HS03EN], measures is repeated 8 times, followed by an infinitive, and the same structure occurs in Spanish in [HS03SP].

Excerpt (1)
Member States should improve equal access to quality and inclusive education of Roma pupils, including by means of measures such as the following: (a) measures to prevent and eliminate any form of segregation in ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 13, No. 5;2023 education and to ensure that the potential of all pupils is supported; (b) measures to prevent and eliminate misdiagnosis leading to inappropriate placement of Roma pupils in special needs education and to ensure that the allocation of special needs education is based on a transparent and lawful procedure; (c) measures to provide effective methods for recognition and reparation of past injustices in the field of education, including segregation, the inappropriate placement of Roma pupils in special schools and unequal treatment; (d) measures to promote equity, inclusiveness and diversity in the education system and the classroom, for example, through professional development programmes, mentoring and peer learning activities; (e) measures to encourage effective parental involvement in the education of Roma pupils and foster links between the schools and local communities, including through mediators and teaching assistants; (f) measures to support the equal participation and active engagement of all pupils, including children with disabilities, in mainstream educational activities and processes; (g) measures to combat school bullying and harassment, both online and offline, in order to protect all pupils, including Roma; (h) measures to raise awareness among teachers and other school staff of Roma history, Roma cultures and methods for recognising and combating discrimination and its root causes, including antigypsyism and unconscious bias, and of the importance of non-discriminatory education and effective equal access to mainstream education; (i) measures to support efforts to ensure that Roma pupils acquire skills in line with current and future labour market needs. [HS03EN] Los Estados miembros deben consolidar sus esfuerzos a fin de adoptar y aplicar medidas para promover la igualdad y prevenir y combatir de forma eficaz la discriminación, el antigitanismo y la exclusión social y económica, así como sus causas profundas. Estos esfuerzos deben incluir medidas como las siguientes: a) medidas para combatir eficazmente la discriminación directa e indirecta, por ejemplo haciendo frente al acoso, al antigitanismo, a los estereotipos, a la retórica antigitana, a la incitación al odio, a los delitos de odio y a la violencia contra los gitanos, incluida la incitación a la violencia, tanto en línea como fuera de línea, en especial en el contexto de la transposición, la aplicación y el cumplimiento de la Directiva 2000/43/CE, la Decisión Marco 2008/913/JAI y la Directiva 2010/13/UE del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo(17); b) medidas para desarrollar y promover un sistema global de apoyo a las víctimas, en consonancia con la Directiva 2012/29/UE, y para ofrecer asistencia a las personas gitanas que sean víctimas de delitos de odio y discriminación; c) medidas para combatir la discriminación múltiple y estructural (18) contra la población gitana y, en particular, contra las mujeres, la juventud, la infancia, las personas LGBTI, las personas de edad avanzada, las personas con discapacidades, los apátridas y los gitanos que se desplazan dentro de la UE(19); d) medidas para concienciar acerca de la relación entre los esfuerzos para combatir las prácticas discriminatorias y los esfuerzos para combatir el antigitanismo y la exclusión socioeconómica, como parte de un empeño común para promover el objetivo general de la igualdad; e) medidas para analizar y reconocer la existencia del antigitanismo y la discriminación contra la población gitana y sensibilizar sobre estos fenómenos, las formas que adoptan y sus consecuencias perniciosas a través de los medios de comunicación, los planes de estudios y otros medios, y por ejemplo concienciando a los funcionarios públicos y a otras partes interesadas de la necesidad de detectarlos y hacerles frente; f) medidas para promover campañas y actividades escolares de sensibilización multicultural; g) medidas para promover el conocimiento de las culturas, la lengua y la historia de la población gitana, incluida la conmemoración del Holocausto Gitano y la divulgación de los procesos de reconciliación en la sociedad, entre otros medios a través de actividades que formen adecuadamente a los profesores y del diseño adecuado de los planes de estudios, dado que la concienciación es fundamental para reducir los prejuicios y el antigitanismo como causas importantes de discriminación; h) medidas para fomentar narrativas positivas sobre la población gitana y modelos de referencia gitanos, así como una mejor comprensión de las dificultades a las que hacen frente los gitanos, también mediante el apoyo a encuentros intercomunitarios y el aprendizaje intercultural [HS03SP] In the Italian version [HS03IT] the term misure appears only once at the beginning and then only the verb in the infinitive form can be found. So, measures to prevent is translated as prevenire, measures to provide as assicurare, measures to promote as promuovere, measures to encourage as incoraggiare, measures to support as sostenere, measures to combat as combattere, measures to raise awareness as sensibilizzare and so on.
Gli Stati membri dovrebbero migliorare la parità di accesso a un'istruzione inclusiva e di qualità per gli alunni Rom, compreso mediante misure quali quelle volte a: a) prevenire ed eliminare qualsiasi forma di segregazione nell'istruzione e garantire che il potenziale di tutti gli alunni sia sostenuto; b) prevenire ed eliminare valutazioni errate che comportano il collocamento inappropriato di alunni Rom in strutture educative per alunni con bisogni speciali e garantire che l'assegnazione all'insegnamento speciale sia fondato su una procedura trasparente e regolare; c) assicurare metodi efficaci per il riconoscimento e la riparazione ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 13, No. 5;2023 delle ingiustizie subite in passato nel settore dell'istruzione, compresa la segregazione, il collocamento inappropriato degli alunni Rom in scuole d'insegnamento speciale e la disparità di trattamento; d) promuovere l'equità, l'inclusività e la diversità nel sistema di istruzione e in classe, ad esempio attraverso programmi di sviluppo professionale, tutoraggio e attività di apprendimento tra pari; e) incoraggiare un coinvolgimento effettivo dei genitori nell'istruzione degli alunni Rom e rafforzare i legami tra le scuole e le comunità locali, anche per il tramite di mediatori e assistenti all'insegnamento; f) sostenere la partecipazione paritaria e l'impegno attivo di tutti gli alunni, compresi i minori con disabilità, nelle attività e nei processi d'insegnamento generali; g) combattere il bullismo e le molestie nelle scuole, sia online che offline, al fine di proteggere tutti gli alunni, compresi i Rom; h) sensibilizzare gli insegnanti e il resto del personale scolastico sulla storia e le culture dei Rom e sui metodi per riconoscere e contrastare la discriminazione e le sue cause profonde, compresi l'antiziganismo e i pregiudizi inconsci, e in merito all'importanza di un'istruzione non discriminatoria e di un effettivo accesso paritario all'istruzione generale; i) sostenere gli sforzi volti a garantire che gli alunni Rom acquisiscano competenze in linea con le esigenze attuali e future del mercato del lavoro. [HS03IT] The following tables show the co-text of the word measures in the three corpora: as can be seen in the English version the left context was considered in which pre-modifiers such as national, mandatory, technical, integration, and criminal law modify the word measures. Concordances such as targeted measures, existing measures, austerity measures and socio-economic measures can be found along with the others already listed. In the Spanish and Italian versions on the contrary, the modifiers are to be found on the right co-text: therefore, misure di ricorso e di sostegno, misure nazionali, misure obbligatorie, misure vincolanti are to be found in the Italian versions of the documents. While medidas nacionales, medidas obligatorias, medidas de reparación y apoyo, or medidas de apoyo para quienes lo necesiten, 'supporting measures for those who need them', are among the most frequent concordances in the Spanish texts.  Concordances of the word medidas in the Spanish corpus medidas de prevención y lucha contra la delincuencia, el racismo y la xenofobia para combatir la violencia de género de Derecho penal de reparación y apoyo de apoyo público especiales de protección nacionales obligatorias contra las denuncias abusivas destinadas a proteger los derechos fundamentales para mejorar la alfabetización mediática destinadas a proteger la integridad electoral y el debate democrático abierto de apoyo para quienes lo necesiten para garantizar que nadie se quede atrás

Attitude Markers
Following Hyland (see Table 5), attitude markers belong to the interactional features of metadiscourse that involve readers and open opportunities for them to contribute to the discourse. They show the author's perspective and evaluation towards the information provided. They focus the readers' attention and guide their interpretation (Hyland, 2005, p. 52). In particular attitude markers indicate the writer's affective attitude to propositions which is most explicitly signaled by attitude verbs, adverbs, and adjectives.
So, once again the word measures was considered, focusing on the adjectives modifying the word and forming some particular occurrences in the English corpus and their translations. As well known, English is a pre-modifying language so effective, stronger, necessary, concrete and relevant measures (see Table 12) can be found translated into Italian as misure efficaci, misure piu incisive, misure adeguate, misure migliori e più ampie, with the adjective in a post-modifying position (see Table 13). These adjectives show the authors' perspective regarding the measures to be adopted and help the readers to focus on the writers' attitude towards the decisions taken by the legislative bodies and to form their own opinion upon the matter at stake. In Spanish as well the adjectives are found in a post modifying position so medidas concretas, medidas urgentes, medidas pertinentes, medidas adecuadas are found in the concordance lines (see Table 14).   The ubiquity of gender-based hate speech has also been underlined by the Council of Europe, calling for stronger measures to combat it, misure più incisive per combatterlo, and medidas más enérgicas para combatirla. Notice that the word stronger is a rather neutral and common word while the translations both in Italian and in Spanish sound more specific semantically speaking and evaluative given that instead of the possible translation "misure più forti" in Italian we find "misure più incisive", using the adjective incisive together with the comparative form. In Spanish, instead of "medidas más fuertes" "medidas más enérgicas" is used, that corresponds to the adjective energetic or vigorous, instead of strong or the comparative stronger (see Excerpt 2).

Excerpt (2)
For instance, hate speech on grounds of sex characteristics and intersex people in particular have increasingly become the target of hate speech perpetrated by groups that operate cross-border. The ubiquity of gender-based hate speech has also been underlined by the Council of Europe, calling for stronger measures to combat it. [HS01EN] Ad esempio, l'incitazione all'odio basato sulle caratteristiche sessuali aumenta e in particolare le persone intersessuali sono diventate sempre più bersaglio dell'incitamento all'odio perpetrato da gruppi che operano a livello transfrontaliero. L'onnipresenza dell'incitamento all'odio basato sul genere è stata sottolineata anche dal Consiglio d'Europa, che ha invocato misure più incisive per combatterlo. [HS01IT] Por ejemplo, la incitación al odio por motivos de características sexuales y, en particular, las personas intersexuales que se ha convertido cada vez más en el objetivo de la incitación al odio cometida por grupos que operan a escala transfronteriza. El Consejo de Europa también ha subrayado la ubicuidad de la incitación al odio por motivos de género, pidiendo medidas más enérgicas para combatirla. [HS01SP]

Evidentials: in Accordance with, According to
The analysis also involved the investigation of legal discourse and metadiscursive features such as evidentials, which belong to the category of interactive resources (see Table 5). Hyland defines evidentials as "metalinguistic ijel.ccsenet.

Excerpt (5)
National approaches and relevant measures to promote Roma inclusion, equality and participation should be tailored and selected in accordance with the specific circumstances and needs on the ground, which include the need to address disadvantaged groups, such as Roma, in a broader context. [HS03EN] Le impostazioni nazionali e le misure pertinenti volte a promuovere l'inclusione, l'uguaglianza e la partecipazione dei Rom dovrebbero essere adeguate e selezionate conformemente alle circostanze e alle esigenze specifiche sul campo, che includono la necessità di rivolgersi ai gruppi svantaggiati, quali i Rom, in un contesto più ampio. [HS03IT] Los enfoques nacionales y las medidas pertinentes para promover la inclusión, igualdad y participación de la población gitana deben adaptarse y seleccionarse con arreglo a las circunstancias y necesidades específicas existentes sobre el terreno, incluida la necesidad de dirigirse a los grupos desfavorecidos, tales como la población gitana, en un contexto más amplio. [HS03ES]

Excerpt (6)
In accordance with national and Union law, available resources and national circumstances, Member States should, as appropriate, consider the relevance to the national context of the measures set out in this Recommendation and implement them, in a proportionate and selective manner, in close cooperation with all relevant stakeholders. [HS03EN] In conformità del diritto nazionale e dell'Unione, delle risorse disponibili e delle circostanze nazionali, gli Stati membri dovrebbero, se del caso, esaminare la pertinenza, rispetto al contesto nazionale, delle misure illustrate nella presente raccomandazione e attuarle in modo proporzionato e selettivo, in stretta cooperazione con tutti i pertinenti portatori di interessi. [HS03IT] Los Estados miembros, cuando corresponda, deben considerar la pertinencia que tienen las medidas establecidas en la presente Recomendación en el contexto nacional y aplicarlas de forma proporcionada y selectiva, en estrecha colaboración con todas las partes interesadas oportunas teniendo en cuenta el Derecho nacional y de la Unión, los recursos disponibles y las circunstancias nacionales. [HS03SP]

Member States should notify the Commission of any measures taken in accordance with this Recommendation by June 2023. [HS03EN]
Gli Stati membri dovrebbero notificare alla Commissione le eventuali misure adottate in conformità della presente raccomandazione entro giugno 2023. [HS03IT] Los Estados miembros deben comunicar a la Comisión todas las medidas adoptadas con arreglo a la presente Recomendación a más tardar en junio de 2023. [HS03SP] Similarly, according to is used 18 times in the English corpus as shown by the concordance lines taken from Sketch Engine in Figure 6 and translated with two equivalents in Italian and 4 equivalents in Spanish, as shown in Table  16.

Legal Terminology: Criminals, Perpetrators and Victims
After hate speech, hate crimes and the countermeasures against them, the analysis was focused on the people involved.
It was observed that the individuals responsible for hate crimes are not precisely defined in the documents under scrutiny. The word criminals is used only once, it is an hapax found only in document [HS02EN] and is translated as criminali in Italian and delincuentes in Spanish (see Excerpt 14). Then the phrases individuals responsible and those responsible are found in the documents [HS01EN] and [HS06EN], translated with persone responsabili and personas responsables in the few cases they are used, as in Excerpt (15) and (16).

Excerpt (16)
Supports the Commission's commitment to combating gender-based violence, supporting and protecting the victims of these crimes, and ensuring that those responsible are held accountable for their crimes. [HS01EN] Sostiene l'impegno della Commissione per combattere la violenza di genere, sostenere e proteggere le vittime di questi reati e assicurare che i responsabili siano chiamati a rispondere dei loro reati. [HS02IT] Respalda el compromiso de la Comisión de combatir la violencia de género, apoyar y proteger a las víctimas de estos delitos, y exigir que los responsables rindan cuentas de sus delitos. [HS01SP] Another term used to refer to the individuals responsible for hate crimes is perpetrators: there are in total 5 occurrences of it, that in Italian are translated as autore and in Spanish as autor, a rather neutral term. Particularly interesting is the first example in which perpetrator's action and la acción del autor are rendered in Italian with the impersonal phrase innescare l'azione focusing on the action rather than on the performer, who is not mentioned (see Excerpt 17).

Excerpt (17)
For both hate speech and hate crime, it is the bias motivation that triggers the perpetrator's action. Targeted persons are selected based on the irreal or perceived connection, attachment, affiliation with, support or membership of a community or a group sharing a protected characteristic. Differently from the word criminal or perpetrator which are not precisely defined, the word victim is declined in its various sub-groupings and, therefore, several vulnerable categories are cited in the corpora such as individual victims but also groups such as older people or persone anziane or personas mayores or las víctimas de edad avanzada. The absence of attitude markers to signal any type of evaluation of alleged negative actors must be also noticed. On the contrary attitude markers are used to define and modify words and phrases related to victims and targeted persons as shown in Excerpts (18)

Excerpt (19)
The pandemic also emphasised intergenerational tensions and brought a resurgence of hostile messages on social media qualifying as hate speech against older people, who as a vulnerable category have been more targeted by abuse during the pandemic and more prone to becoming victims of hate speech and hate crime. [HS01EN] La pandemia ha accentuato anche le tensioni intergenerazionali e causato un diffondersi di messaggi ostili sui social media che si qualificano come incitamento all'odio nei confronti delle persone anziane, che in quanto categoria vulnerabile sono stati più colpiti dagli abusi durante la pandemia e rischiano maggiormente di essere vittime di incitamento all'odio e reati generati dall'odio [HS01IT] La pandemia también puso de relieve las tensiones intergeneracionales y trajo un resurgimiento de mensajes hostiles en los medios sociales calificados como incitación al odio contra las personas mayores, que, como categoría vulnerable, han sido objeto de ofensas en mayor medida durante la pandemia, así como más propensos a convertirse en víctimas de incitación al odio y de delitos de odio. [HS01SP]

Excerpt (20)
…the invisibility and lack of protection of older victims is heightened by the lack of awareness of age as a ground that might incite hate crimes. [HS01EN] …vittime più anziane sono aggravate dalla mancata consapevolezza dell'età come motivo che potrebbe incitare a commettere reati generati dall'odio. [HS01IT] Las víctimas de edad avanzada se ven agravadas por la falta de conciencia de la edad como motivo que podría incitar a los delitos de odio. [HS01SP] Excerpt ( Trafficked victims, which is translated as vittime della tratta and víctimas de trata as in Excerpt (23) also represent the object of countermeasures taken against hate crime by the European institutions, especially when it comes to provide anti-trafficking efforts to remove online abusive materials.

Excerpt (23)
Internet service providers and related companies are part of the solution to support anti-trafficking efforts with identification and removal of online material associated with exploitation and abuse of trafficked victims [HS02EN] I prestatori di servizi Internet e le imprese collegate fanno parte della soluzione destinata a sostenere gli sforzi anti-tratta tramite l'individuazione e la rimozione di materiale online associato allo sfruttamento e all'abuso di vittime della tratta [HS02IT] Los proveedores de servicios de internet y las empresas relacionadas forman parte de la solución para apoyar los esfuerzos contra la trata de seres humanos mediante la identificación y la eliminación del material digital asociado con la explotación y el abuso de las víctimas de trata [HS02SP] Additionally, many of these documents in the corpora deal with Roma victims who are donne e minori Rom in Italian or personas gitanas, in particular mujeres y niños gitanos in Spanish, as in Excerpts (24) and (25) who are victims of such hate crimes and for whom some kind of measures are foreseen.

Excerpt (24)
In line with Directive 2012/29/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council (3), this Recommendation also aims to promote support to Roma victims of such crimes. [HS04EN] In linea con la direttiva 2012/29/UE del Parlamento europeo e del Consiglio (3), la presente raccomandazione mira altresì a promuovere l'assistenza ai Rom vittime di tali reati.
[HS04IT] En consonancia con la Directiva 2012/29/UE del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo (3), la presente Recomendación aspira también a fomentar el apoyo a las personas gitanas que sean víctimas de este tipo de delitos. [HS04SP] Last but not least, women and LGBTIQ people are cited as victims of public or domestic violence and hate crimes such as online harassment, cyberbullying and sexist hate speech. As underlined by Piñeiro-Otero and Martínez-Rolán (2021: 1) in their study about manifestations of sexist hate speech and misogyny on Twitter "15% of direct interactions and 10% of indirect interactions involving the women included some form of insult or abuse, although these were not necessarily sexist or misogynistic in nature. Women with greater visibility and social influence, such as those active in communication or politics, are most often targeted by this violence". Against these crimes the European institutions are fighting and they are trying to find countermeasures with the objective to encourage Member states to provide medical and social services, help programs, and safe places for protection (see Excerpts 25,26,27).

Excerpt (27)
The COVID-19 pandemic has shown us that most Member States are insufficiently equipped to provide emergency or short-term shelter to LGBTIQ individuals who are either victims of domestic violence, especially transgender people, or are being assaulted by their own families. [HS08EN] La pandemia di COVID-19 ha mostrato che la maggior parte degli Stati membri non è sufficientemente preparata a fornire rifugi di emergenza o a breve termine alle persone LGBTIQ vittime di violenza domestica, in particolare le persone transgender, o che subiscono aggressioni da parte delle loro stesse famiglie. [HS08IT] La pandemia de COVID-19 nos ha demostrado que la mayoría de los Estados miembros no está suficientemente equipada para ofrecer refugio de urgencia o a corto plazo a las personas LGBTIQ que son víctimas de violencia doméstica, en particular personas transgénero, o que están siendo agredidas por sus propios familiares. [HS08SP]

Conclusions
Hate speech and hate crimes are gaining increasing interest in various contexts including that of the European institutions: these documents from the 2021 show a growing concern and attention on the topic.
The findings in this work reveal strong and valid attempts of EU legislation to recognise hate speech as hate crimes and to criminalise such deeds and actions which constitute forms of abuse and discrimination against vulnerable categories such as women, Roma population, disabled persons, older people, LGBTQI communities, racial and different ethnic groups. From a linguistic point of view, a neutral treatment and attitude towards actors and perpetrators can be noticed, as revealed by the absence of attitude markers or adjectives and definitions evaluating their alleged negative nature. On the contrary vulnerable victims and hostile actions or criminal offences are precisely defined and assessed.
Measures as well are clearly indicated in their legal nature (national, mandatory, socio-economic) but also marked and evaluated from a qualifying and linguistic point of view, as the abundant presence of adjectives and attitude markers shows (effective, urgent, relevant, appropriate, awareness-raising). The same variety is appreciable in the use of equivalents of the evidentials used in the texts through which intertextual references to other laws, norms, directives, regulations and opinions is made in the documents under investigation.
From a translation point of view, despite the prevalent monoreferentiality of the legal English and legal terminology, an extreme variety in the translated texts was found, that, to a certain extent, explains, not only the differences in type/token ratio, but also the larger amount of tokens in the two translated corpora. It was thanks to the use of parallel corpora that was possible to appreciate the varieties found in the documents and in addition this made us reflect once more on the importance of using this type of corpora in the classroom, as an invaluable resource for the pedagogy of translation: as a matter of fact, they are precious resources of information and data, much more than traditional or digital dictionaries, for discovering typical and well-established translation equivalents of given terms and expressions, and additionally, they can raise students' awareness of translation strategies actually used by professionals in institutional contexts. ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 13, No. 5;2023 Acknowledgments Not applicable.

Authors contributions
Though this paper has been jointly conceived, organised and developed, Michela Giordano is responsible for Sections 1, 2, 3, 3.1, 3.3. 3.4 and 3.5. Simona Maria Cocco is responsible for sections 3.2, 3.2.1, 3.2.2, 3.6 and Conclusions. The general plan and editing was a cooperative, shared effort. Both authors edited, read and approved the final manuscript.

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Not commissioned; externally double-blind peer reviewed.

Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

Data sharing statement
No additional data are available.