Basic Factors Motivating the Extension of Word Meaning

The present study was conducted to investigate the psycholinguistic bases and realization mechanism of semantic changes. Semantic extension that occurs in words comprehended in original nominative meaning has many times been the objective of linguistic investigations. As modern linguistics focuses more and more on the relationship of language and cognition, language and psychology, linguistic analyses and studies of word semantics are also directed to cognitive and thinking processes. The article aims to scrutinize main factors that bring about semantic changes. The semantic structure of a word undergoes multilateral changes throughout the historical development of language. Most words in language may assume additional meanings in functional speech that are not fixed in their lexicographic definitions. These peripheral or potential semantic components of meaning are realized in the thoughts of people in certain contexts. One of the reasons bringing about polysemy is explained by generalizing character of human thinking. The current study explains the approaches of both traditional and cognitive linguistics towards the above-mentioned linguistic phenomenon. The article also provides the interpretation of semantic development on the basis of the element of reality—the minimum unit that is comprehended, introduced in the theory of Linguo-Psychological Unity (LPU) newly created in Azerbaijani linguistics.

which language units are originated and perceived was formed in the middle of the 20th century based on psychological direction in linguistics. Here one of the main topics of interest is the remembering and transference of information. In the 19th century, Wilhelm von Humboldt, the great German scientist, linguist and philosopher indicated the relation between language and human psychology. These ideas are considered to be the founding stones of psycholinguistics. There existed three schools or directions in the history of classical psycholinguistics: behaviorism, neobehaviorism and the theory of speech activities. They introduced several models and theories ralated to the interpretation of the speech ontogenesis and acquisition processes. The problems settled in these thoeries were basically of psychological character. In researches conducted within these theories the main attention was paid to the interpretation of the mechanism of speech generation and comprehension in general.
The psycholinguistic branches widespread in Europe and America were behaviorism and neobehaviorism, while in Russia and CIS countries the theory of speech activities was more prevalent. The central topic of classical psycholinguistic researches is mostly the comprehension of speech in general. Ch. E. Osgood, the founder of behaviorism and T. A. Sebeok write in the book named "Psycholinguistics. A Survey of Theory and Research Problems": "Interest in speech perception, at first concentrating mainly on the auditory recognition of speech sounds, has enjoyed great currency since the beginning of the 1950's. This can be ragarded as a core area of psycholinguistics…" (Osgood & Sebeok, 1965, p. 224). They specify one of the central problems of psycholinguistics to explain relations between message and cognitive events, decoding and encoding. The authors write: "Psycholinguistics deals directly with the processes of encoding and decoding as they relate states of messages to states of communicators" (Osgood & Sebeok, 1965, p. 4).
The theory of speech activities is based on the theory of psychological activities. L. S. Vyqotsky, one of the founders of the theory of psychological activities considers that the comprehension of speech is based on the chain of associations appearing in mind under the influence of familiar images of words (Vygotsky, 2018, p. 357). A. R. Luria, Russian neuropsychologist, another author of the above-mentioned theory wrote about the problem of word comprehension in his work named "Language and Cognition". In this work the understanding of word meaning is called a complex psychological process (Luria, 1979, p. 126). However, the research does not submit a systematic and stage-by-stage psychological interpretation of word comprehension.
According to the short review of three classical psycholinguistic directions, we may conclude that, classical psycholinguistics gives an interpretation of speech ontogenesis and perception mechanisms, while language structural units minor to speech and sentence were almost not involved in researches. A complete elucidating explanation of word comprehension process consisting of several subsequent stages is not encountered in the above researches. Consequently, we may say that the problems settled within these theories are mainly of psychological character. As the founding of psycholinguistics as an independent scientific discipline was aimed at the study of mechanism of speech origination and comprehension, the above-mentioned theories offer possibility to interpret the problems related with speech.
The most recent psycholinguistic direction is cognitive psycholinguistics, that appeared in the second half of the 20th century. As the name suggests, this scientific discipline mainly studies the mechanism of cognitive processes, the problem of language and thinking. The idea of cognitive bases of speech process is firstly connected with the name of N. Chomsky, an American linguist and cognitive scientist. The attitude of cognitive linguistics to the word problem is based on mutual relation between word and concept. Here the essential term is concept, i.e., notion as it was named in traditional linguistics. Concept is considered to be the the unit of thinking, while word is the the unit of language.
Various researches both in traditional linguistics and psyclolinguistics contained opinions about the role of individual consciousness, subjective structure of meaning, additional emotional content in the process of cognition. According to N. Mammadov and A. Akhundov a person expresses his/her attitude to the word during the process of specifying its relation to the items and events the word denotes. They consider that, emotional content is defined by individual opinions and thoughts of a person, perceiving objective world in a subjective manner (Mammadov & Akhundov, 1980, pp. 102−103). Because of the direct connection with human spirit, the main characteristics of psychological structure of meaning is its subjectivity (Bubnova, Zikova, Krasnikh, & Ufimtseva, 2017, p. 102). Consequently, a person percieves the world through the prism of his/her subjective experiences. From the psychological viewpoint, the comprehension of word by a person is the unity of generalization, communication and thinking processes.
The origination of language and production of speech are directly connected with cognitive processes. Neither speech producing, nor communication can be imagined apart from cognition. During the history of classical psycholinguistics different researchers used various terms to denote the element enabling the realization of ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 10, No. 5;2020 cognitive and thinking processes. W. Wundt used the term "the element of thinking", A. A. Leontyev used "differential element", "real and virtual sign", L. S. Vygotsky named "word turned into act" to denote the minimal appellative unit that ensures cognition. All the above notions mean the elements enabling the reflection of existing items, events and creatures of surrounding world in human brain. The theory of Linguo-Psychological Unity (LPU) recently created in the Azerbaijan linguistic science finds it more expedient to use the term "the images of intellect" equivalent to the real images of the units of reality, ensuring their perceiving and remembering (Askerov, 2015, pp. 49−55).
Another point of interest in the above theory is the comprehension of word which is an internal element of speech. Obviously, the language system consists of not only speech. The theory of Linguo-Psychological Unity provides a comprehensive interpretation of not only speech and sentence creation and cognition mechanisms, but also the formulation and cognition of their internal part-the word. The theory studies perception process in 4 phases or 2 semi-acts mostly taking place in a successive manner. According to the theory of LPU every single word is comprehended as an independent element of reality through transference into the images of intellect. The term named "the element of reality" in the theory expresses abstract notion equivalent to items, events, concepts, norms and principles really existing or accepted as existing in the objective world, and also to their real or imaginary features, characteristics, quality and movements (Askerov, 2015, p. 48). According to the above theory the primary abstract image of any unit of reality originates in cognition, followed by the reflection of the same image in language. As the result, it becomes materialized as language structural unit. Word appears to be a conditional name given to the element of reality by human beings. At the same time, word exists in language as a secondary element of reality materialized in the form of letters and sounds. M. B. Askerov, the author of the theory of LPU, considers that, word is not a means but a final product of cognitive and thinking process (Askerov, 2015, p. 173). On that account, all lexical, lexico-grammatical and grammatical forms are comprehended as independent elements of reality in a separate manner. The comprehension of word is realized as the result of visual or vocal perception within the first semi-act of the act of perception. So, as a psychological process, the comprehension of word occurs in the following procedure: 1) the secondary image of intellect (II 2 ) is created as equivalent to word which is a secondary element of reality (ER 2 ). In combination they produce an inseparable couple of two elements (ER 2 + II 2 ); 2) Having united with an uncomplete two element code (ER 1 + II 1 ) of the unit of reality denoted by the word complete four element code (ER 1 + II 1 ) + (ER 2 + II 2 ) is produced (Askerov, 2015, pp. 109−122). For this reason, the comprehension of word can be considered as a consequence of psycho-psysiological processes reflected in subjective experience on the basis of information recieved through sensor analyzers in preliminary phase and the element of reality, to be exact four element code of intellect.
The overview of above-mentioned directions makes it obviuos that, every new concept or direction has been formulated as the result of critical assessment and reconsideration of previous achievements in a creative manner.

Traditional and Psycholinguistic Approaches to Polysemy
Every language goes through historical development and obviously words in language undergo semantic changes during this process. Word goes through a long and multiple-stage development. These processes are closely connected with development of society, culture, science and technique. Various reasons for changes in word semantics are observed while investigating the etymology and history of words. The development of word meaning is one of the repeatedly investigated topics within traditional linguistic researches. As a linguistic term polysemy is defined as the multicomponent structure of a word able to have several meanings simultaneously. Polysemy stems from the Greek word "polýsēmos" having many meanings. All the meanings of a polysemantic word derived from the initial one formulates its semantic structure, which may be defined as a set of interrelated meanings. Main (or nuclear) and peripheral components are distinguished in the semantic structure of a polysemantic word. In case interrelation is not observed in the semantic structure of words with the same orthographic and orthoepic complex this is considered to be homonymy, but not polysemy.
Traditional semasiology defines the decisive role of context and extralinguistic situation which makes it posible to specify the intended semantic component. A word can assume several additional variants and shades of meaning in different contexts, together with its emotional colouring and stylistic peculiarities. At the same time a word can be comprehended and percieved in different ways depending on the context it is used. So the meaning existing in the language system is of general character, while in functional speech one of the semantic components of the semantic structure is realized or a new meaning makes appearance due to the specific context. However, as a rule, the extension of meaning does not cause ambiguity and misunderstanding in functional speech. Because, every time the participants of communication designate and specify the intended meaning according to the context, the environment where the word is used. The role of polysemy in language is very significant. As the semantics of a word is extended an increase is observed in its expressivness and grammatical relations with other words. For this reason, the polysemantic character of a word is the indicator of numerous lexico-grammatical relations.
Experimental investigations carried out in psycholinguistics make it possible to speak about a wider and more complicated description of word semantics, to approximate the meaning in the thoughts of native speakers similar to its real meaning. The meaning revealed through psycholinguistic experiments practically always turns out to be more multilateral and deeper as compared to its dictionary interpretations. Word usage within a context always reveals shades of meaning which are not included in dictionary. So the possibility of additional shades of meaning that can be described as peripheral and potential semantic components or non-dictionary semantic associations is unanimously accepted in lexicology. In this regard A. A. Leontiev used the terms psychological meaning and psychologically relevant meaning (Leontiev, 1969, p. 197). Z. D. Popova and I. A. Sternin offer the following terminological classification: the meaning introduced in explanatory dictionaries and the meaning in the thoughts of native speakers. In their opinion, psychologically real or psycholinguistic meaning of a word may be defined as an arranged unity of all semantic components that are related to the given orthographic and orthoepic complex in the thoughts of native speakers together with nuclear and peripheral meanings (Popova & Sternin, 2007, pp. 66−67).
Expressing similar items and events with the same word also includes speaker's subjective emotional attitude during verbal communication and mutual understanding. Meaning appears in two aspects in verbal communication: denotative and connotative. Denotation is a lexical and lexicographic meaning of a word accepted by everyone. We find the denotation of a word in dictionaries. While connotation is associative meaning of subjective and emotional character. One of the methods of meaning analyzing in modern psycholinguistics is semantic differential (SD) scale worked out in 1957 by Charles E. Osgood, the founder of behaviorism. This method enables to measure connotative meanings and to specify a person's reaction towards any word.
Nowadays, taking into account the dual character of language, both linguistic and psychological, the researches cover also cognitive processes. Cognitive linguistics investigates the development of word meaning with regard to mutual relationship between linguistic content and extralinguistic situation within the process of speech activities.
Here the particular significance is attached to human or antropocentric factor. According to cognitive linguistics, one and the same lexical unit may acquire different meanings through synthesizing the results of cognitive processes within the same category. According to N. Boldirev, polysemy is interpreted not only as a multicomponent semantic structure of a word, but also its capability to be used in various shades of meaning on the account of different conceptual signs (Boldirev, 2016, p. 199). Polysemy in cognitive aspect is viewed as multifunctional character of a word gained in the process of speech activities. In cognitive semantics the basic criterion is a person, thinking and speaking. In other words, a person comprehends the surrounding world in accordance with his/her own needs.

Research Methodology
The current investigation is aimed at determining the psycholinguistic bases that underlie the semantic changes of lexical units and revealing basic reasons of semantic extension connected with cognitive processes. The methods have been chosen in accordance with the topic to be investigated. Definitely, the correct choice of investigation methods ensures detailed analysis of any linguistic phenomenon and guarantees the objective results. To achieve the goal and to approach the study in a detailed way appropriate methodology should be introduced. For this purpose, the analysis of the psycholinguistic factors that bring about semantic changes was taken into consideration. The article was prepared taking into account the fact that, both linguistic and extralinguistic peculiarities of a language unit function in actual speech. The present study applied the following methods of research to achieve the objectives: linguistic description, synchronic method, observation method and semantic-componential analysis. By the method of linguistic description we could research the language phenomena from the synchronic aspect. The method of synchronic description is based on the study and generalization of basic achievements of modern linguistics. The semantic-componential analysis method, typical of structural semantics identifies and analyzes the components of word meaning. The utilization of the above mentioned methods was deemed appropriate in accordance with the main aim of the study. In the course of the present investigation the theoretical framework has been scrutinized which made it possible to study the issue through multiple viewpoints. As the result of the research conducted a new interpretation of the analysis of semantic changes has been proposed. ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 10, No. 5; 2020

Polysemy and the Operations of Generalization
Psycholinguistic approach to the comprehension of word studies this process as a complete mechanism realized within human intellectual opportunities. The studies on speech ontogenesis reveal that the comprehension of word meaning is a complex process comprising several successive stages. The investigations by different scientific researchers make evident that the extension of word meaning, distinguishing words with figurative meaning and their usage in speech are directly connected with intellectual development of a child. A child first comprehends and uses the words only in nominative meaning at the primary stage of development-early years of his/her life. Firstly, objects, qualities, characteristics and events are distinguished from one another, this results in word meaning differentiating. In subsequent stages of development, a child improves generalizing skills. As the conclusion of the review of literature on child speech we may identify three main directions of generalization performed by children:

1) Nominating the identical units of objective reality with the same word.
The observations reveal that, the first generalizations are carried out by children according to external, identical and visual features of objects. For example, every object with wheels is called a car. This stage is characterized by differentiation, specification and corrections. A child determines the element of reality reflected by the word or lexical form that he/she comprehends through auditory contact. During the development of speech the processes of generalization obtain a more precise character based on word signals and are carried out according to significant features.

2) Developing thinking processes from special to general. The following series of words may serve as examples:
butter, bread, milk-food; a pigeon, a sparrow, a crow-a bird etc. However L. S. Vygotski indicated that this kind of generalization does not always follow a logical direction, which is obvious in the case of a flower-a rose.
In this sample the contrary direction, development from general to special is observed (Vygotsky, 2018, p. 323). Definitely, to obtain a notion about the general category comprising a number of special items requires the development of thinking process not only in horizontal, but also in vertical direction.

3) Performing the operations of generalization according to a certain significant feature.
As the result of these operations a word is used in metaphoric or metonymic meaning. In this stage most general and significant characteristic feature of the element of reality is taken into consideration. The role of the processes of analyzing and synthesizing is very important for the operations of generalization. These activities are the main cause of development in the direction of abstract thinking from objective reality. So, eventually after a child gets to sufficient intellectual level there appears complicated semantic relations (metaphor, extension of meaning, etc.) in his/her speech owing to abstract thinking. No doubt, the meanings of words signifying real objects are far more easily and quickly comprehended as compared to those signifying unreal notions.
In this regard, the dynamics of development can be schematically explained as follows: differentiating the units of reality in the surrounding world (to distinguish one from another, for example: this is a bread, but not tea) → generalizing (to denote the similar or identical units of objective reality with the same word) → the development of meaning (the transference of meaning, metaphoric and metonymic usage).
As we know, one of the main ways of extension of meaning is the application of metaphoric usage of words. Metaphor means first generalization and subsequent transference of external and inner qualities, functions and similar characteristics inherent to an object, event or movement to some other ones. As a semantic process transference of meaning becomes realized on the basis of primary or nominative meaning. Metaphoric transference brings about a new meaning completely different from the primary meaning of a word. However, determining of figurative meaning requires reference to the primary one.
That is, metaphors represent how human beings understand and experience one thing in the way they understand and experience another… It is therefore believed that most of the usages of the word are but methaphorical projections of the image schemata (Cheng, 2019, pp. 110−112).
Most investigations conducted in different periods explain the origination of polysemy with generalizing character of concept and its common features with other objects, items, qualities and events of objective reality. T. I. Arbekova uses the term semantic core to denote the general meaning around which most derivative or subordinate components are assembled. In her opinion, meanings of polysemantic word are correlated by one central meaning and grouped around one semantic core (Arbekova, 1977, p. 86). Hence the possibility to use the same word to denote to a series of objects is explained by semantic core or general meaning. For example, the English word coat means: 1) an outer garment-overcoat, raincoat, winter coat, fur coat; 2) the external growth on an animal-a dog's coat; 3) a layer of one substance-a coat of paint, film coated tablets; 4) to cover with a layer-chocolate coating. Semantic core that correlates the above-mentioned meanings in the consciousness of native language speakers is the notion of covering.
Consequently, according to traditional linguistics the basis of semantic development is defined as central content, semantic core (Arbekova, 1977, p. 86), differentiating and generalizing sememe (Verdiyeva, Aghayeva, & Adilov, 1979, pp. 295−298), etc. The above-mentioned terms mean generalizing semantic sign in the consciousness of native speakers. Cognitive linguistics, on the other hand, explains the polysemy through the principle of coordinating meaning and content within the framework of one and the same category.
We know that, all meanings of a polysemantic word is related or connected to one-another. Accordingly, a certain general meaning inherent to all the semantic components is characteristic for this semantic phenemonon. A person designates the same name to similar notions that are newly created or encountered on the basis of logical-associative relations.
The idea is that these multiple meanings share conceptual framework which is mainly originated in the lexical item (Alalwi & Ismail, 2019, p. 47).
The extension of meaning in the Azerbaijani word çörək (bread) is observed in connection with characteristics of national thinking processes. Let's look through lexicographic description of the above-mentioned word: 1.  2006, p. 498). Here the meanings meal and income are identified in addition to the first nominative meaning. The shade of meaning like food supply is quite common in everyday speech of native speakers. Alongside with lexicographic definitions another derivative meaning of the above-mentioned word appears as the result of the utilization as the generalized name of various confectionery products and pastries. However, the last semantic component observed in the semantic structure in this sample is of quite situational and non-stable character.

The Interpretation of the Extension of Meaning Based on the Element of Reality
The above facts substantiate the viewpoint that, polysemy being one of the directions of semantic development is closely connected with creative thinking processes. It is not possible to imagine speech-producing activities isolated from comprehension processes. For this reason, the most complete and precise interpretation of development of meaning is its linguo-psychological explanation based on "minimum units that are comprehended". The concept "minimum units that are comprehended" is explained as minimum characteristics of items, beings and events ensuring their reflection in human brain (Askerov, 2015, p. 46). The term "the element of reality" introduced in the theory of Linguo-Psychological Unity considers namely this feature. The linguo-psychological reasons of semantic development can be more comprehensively interpreted on the basis of the element of reality introduced in the above-mentioned theory. As we know, every word includes a certain generalization where the important role belongs to general significant feature. The semantic extension of word takes place owing to this feature. A person comprehends not reality or a unit of reality, but the feature of the unit of reality that corresponds to his/her own needs or an abstract notion identified by himself/herself. Being an abstract notion formulated by person in reference to a unit of reality, the element of reality is more effective as compared to the aforesaid generalizing semantic elements and categories. It should be taken into account that, in most cases the unit of reality is comprehended not on the basis of its natural peculiarities, but through the prism of personal needs. The reason for this is connected with a person's aims and activities (Askerov, 2015, p. 47). Consequently, taking into account the afore-said facts we may come to the conclusion that, word meaning and content is grounded on the element of reality formulated on the basis of most significant features of the comprehended unit of reality. The word The observation of the above examples reveals that, all meanings of a polysemantic word are coordinated within the framework of a common differentiating feature, that is to say the element of reality. The element of reality comprises minimum features ensuring the reflection of the units of the objective world. Semantic development is realized with reference to the minimum unit comprehended by a human being, that is the element of reality. Trensference of meaning is realized in accordance with the notion comprehended and conforming to personal needs. In this way, the mechanism of word formulation, comprehension and semantic extension can be explained in consecutive order on the basis of the theory of LPU as follows: a word, being a name of only comprehended units of reality appears in language because of the need for information exchange. In the successive stage the word is comprehended as a secondary element of reality formulated by human brain by means of the images of intellect (named the element of thinking, differential element, real and virtual sign in classical psycholinguistics). Further development of human cognitive abilities and social practice brings about the deviations from the first formal concepts. A word gains a new content in every stage, enlarges its coordinating and generalizing system and undergoes semantic development.

Conclusion
Polysemy, appearing as the result of extension of word meaning has many times been the object of traditional and cognitive linguistic researches. The theory of LPU makes it possible to give the explanation of semantic extension from the linguo-psychological viewpoint on the basis of the element of reality. Every unit of objective reality generalizes many features and traits, some of which are common with other objects. This fact enables the usage of existing word in derivative meaning to name the objects with common or similar features.
One of the characteristic features of meaning is the absence of exact and fixed borders. This results in potential extension of word semantics. The psychological structure of meaning is dynamic and functional. The process of communication comprises not only linguistic, but also extralinguistic factors, such as social and cultural. During actual speech a person may evade from the meaning identified in language system. Modern linguistics accepts the fact that, speech is mostly individual, while language belongs to a community. Human speech reflects personal psychological state and is realized as the result of brain activities. At the same time, it should be mentioned that, language also reflects mentality, way of thinking and psychology of native speakers. Language, that functions as the basis, finds its realization in speech. Therefore, both language and speech are directly connected with thinking processes. Depending on the usage within a specific context and situation a word acquires additional or secondary meaning first individually. Derivative meanings appear in language as the result of individual thinking activities and gradually become easily comprehended by all language users as integral parts of the word semantics. As the result they become common in the speech of native speakers or socially accepted. This is brought about by the requirements of active language system.