Economic Value Added ( EVA )-Literature Review and Relevant Issues

This paper aims to present a narrative literature review of 112 papers published on the EVA from 1994 to 2008. It provides a classification scheme, identifies the gaps in existing literature and suggests the direction for future research. Studies are classified and presented on the basis of the time period, issues covered, distribution of literature in various sources, methodology used, country-wise publications and contributions made by the researchers on the concept. The studies conducted in the developed countries have largely been found to be supporting EVA though there are certain studies in these countries too that consider conventional measures as better tools of corporate performance reporting. However, in developing economies less numbers of studies are available supporting the empirical validity of the concept as a corporate performance measurement tool. The concept of EVA has gained significant attention in the advanced economies, but implementation issues and its validity is under debate all over the world. The paper presents a comprehensive literature review and a critical analysis to move towards the advances in EVA. It may be a very useful source of information to the researchers and managers who wish to understand and implement EVA and carry out further research on the diverse issues of this interesting and value adding performance metric.


Introduction
Maximizing shareholders value has become the new corporate paradigm in recent years.The Corporates, which gave the lowest preference to shareholders curiosity, are now bestowing the utmost preference to it.Shareholder's wealth is measured in terms of returns they receive on their investment.It can either be in forms of dividends or in the form of capital appreciation or both.Capital appreciation depends on the changes in the market value of the stocks.The market value of stocks depends upon number of factors ranging from company specific to market specific.Financial information is used by various stakeholders to assess firm's current performance and to forecast the future as well.
The empirical studies highlight that there is no single accounting measure which explains the variability in the shareholders wealth (Chen and Dodd, 1997;Rogerson, 1997).Any financial measures used in assessing firm's performance must be highly correlated with shareholders wealth and on the other hand should not be subjected to randomness inherent in it.Traditional performance measures such as NOPAT, EPS, ROI, ROE etc. have been criticized due to their inability to incorporate full cost of capital thereby accounting income is not a consistent predictor of firm value and cannot be used for measuring corporate performance.Value based management system has gained popularity in academic literature in last two decades.One such innovation in the field of internal and external performance measurement is EVA.(Note 1) Pioneered and advocated by US based business consultant Stern Stewart and company argue that EVA can be used instead of earnings or cash from operations as measures of both internal and external performance."Abandon earnings per share", "Earnings, earnings per share, and earnings growth are misleading measures of corporate performance" and "The best practical periodic performance measure is EVA" (Stewart 1991).Further to support his hypothesis that EVA is a better performance measures than other performance measures Stewart (1994) cites in-house research indicating that "EVA stands well out from the crowd as the single best measures of value creation on continuous basis".He further remarks that 'EVA is almost 50% better than accounting based measures in explaining changes in the shareholders wealth".Apart from this popular study, support for EVA has been acknowledged from other sources, Fortune, which regularly publishes EVA performance rating since 1993 has acknowledged EVA under different notations "today's hottest financial idea", "The Real way to creating wealth" and "A new way to find Bargains".Proponents of EVA have made following principles claims about EVA:-1) EVA helps in reducing Agency conflict and improve decision making (Costigan & Lovata, 2002;Biddle et al. 1999 ) 2) EVA is more strongly associated with stock return than other measures.(Maditinos et al., 2006;Lehen and Makhija,1997) 3) EVA Improves Stock Performance (Ferguson et al., 2005) 4) EVA adds more informational content in explaining stock returns (Erasmus, 2008;Chen and Dodd, 1997;Kim, 2006;Palliam, 2006) 5) EVA and Market Value are correlated (Lefkowitz, 1999;O'Byrne, 1996;Uyemura, 1996;Peterson and Peterson, 1996).Before proceeding further on the concept, let us first understand the concept of EVA.

The Concept of EVA
In 1990 a new device was formulated to gauge the profitability of a concern, which is known as 'EVA'.This concept is, as a matter of fact, a reversion to the formulation of Alfred Marshal (1890) which he put forward in early nineteenth century.The EVA of the company is just a measure of the incremental return that the investment earns over the market rate of return.In simple terms, it can be stated that EVA measures the profitability net of cost of capital.As someone has aptly remarked, 'you only get richer if you invest money at a higher return than the cost of money to you'.Everybody knows this but many seem to forget it.Thus, EVA can be taken as the net operating profit minus an appropriate charge for the opportunity cost of all the capital invested in an enterprise.As such, EVA is an estimate of true economic profit or the amount by which earnings exceed or fall short of the required minimum rate of return that shareholder and lenders could get by investing in other securities of comparable risk.

Calculation of EVA
EVA is the surplus left after making an appropriate charge for the capital employed in the business.It can be calculated in the following way.EVA = NOPAT -(TCE x WACC) ……………….. (1) Where, NOPAT = Net operating profit after tax TCE = Total capital employed WACC= Weighted average cost of capital While calculation of NOPAT, the non-operating items like dividend/interest on securities invested outside the business, non-operating expenses etc. will not be considered.The total capital employed is the sum of shareholders funds as well as loan funds.But this does not include investments outside the business.In determining the WACC, cost of debt is taken as after tax cost and cost of equity is measured on the basis of capital asset pricing method.Under capital asset pricing model, cost of equity, i. e, K e is given by the following: The cost of capital is thus the most important aspect of EVA.Under the traditional methods most companies appear to be profitable whereas in reality, they are not.As Peter Drucker (1995, p.59) has observed, "Until a business returns a profit that is greater than its cost of capital, it operates at a loss.Never mind that it pays taxes, as if it had a genuine profit.The enterprise still returns less to the economy than it devours in resources... until then it does not create wealth; it destroys it."EVA takes this fact into consideration and states that managers must pay for the capital they are utilizing, just as if it were a wage.From the Table I, it is clear that traditional measure of corporate performance does not consider cost of capital in calculation of NOPAT whereas EVA includes the same.

Rationale and Scope of the Study
There has been a growing concern about the performance measures based on traditional accounting information such as Return on Equity (ROE), Earning per Shares (EPS), Net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) and Return on Investment (ROI) etc.As discussed in the introductory part of this paper, these measures although widely used fails to capture the shareholders value creation/destruction as a result of management actions.The concept of EVA has gained popularity all over the world particularly in USA, UK and European countries as companies are using EVA as an internal as well as external performance measure because it is consistent with the organizational objective of shareholder's value creation.Due to its popularity lot of research work has been conducted in late 1990's covering diverse issues on EVA.Although theoretically the significance of EVA has been proved but there exist gaps between the various studies about the superiority of EVA.In some academic literature EVA has been proved superior to traditional measures and some studies reject this hypothesis partially or fully.In the light of above, present study has been conducted to find out various issues underlying EVA and to present them at a single place.Another rational of this review paper is that empirical studies conducted till date on EVA in different countries have used different methodology and variables to prove their respective hypothesis.This study is a step to bring out those methodologies and variables in order to determine the direction for future research on EVA.The paper covers empirical studies conducted and published on EVA during 1994 to 2008.

Objectives of the Study
The study has been conducted with the primary objectives like arranging the publications on EVA in an orderly manner so as to enable easy and quick access, classifying literature on EVA and analyzing the outcome of the studies reviewed.Identifying gaps in the existing literature and suggesting the course of future research on EVA are some added objectives of the paper.

Data and Methodology
The paper is based upon studies conducted on EVA in various countries and published in various sources.A total of 112 papers (from 61 refereed journals and international conferences) have been reviewed.The distribution of articles reviewed from various sources is given in Table II.All these papers are classified on the basis of various approaches & issues covered and presented in Table III.Literature related to EVA addresses issues like EVA and MVA (Note 2) relationship, EVA and stock returns, Value based management, discounting techniques and EVA, EVA concepts, limitations, advantages and implementation, EVA as strategy and literature review (Figure I).All the studies reviewed are also classified on the basis of methodologies used that are given in Table III & Figure 2. The following part covers detailed description on literature on EVA.

Literature on EVA
Various articles dealing with the theory and applications of EVA have been published over the last 15 years, but the concept is still under development and debate particularly in developed countries.Worthington and West (2001) reviewed the literature on EVA and provided a synoptic survey of EVA's conceptual underpinnings.They concluded that empirical evidences concerning EVA have been mixed.There is strong need for research over a longer time frame to allow greater empirical certainty on the status of EVA as a corporate performance measure.Pal and Sura (2007) reviewed 25 empirical studies published in various journals related to relationship of EVA and stock returns.They have only reviewed the results of the studies and have not considered other issues prevalent in EVA research such as EVA-MVA relationship, EVA and discounting techniques, other residual income (Note 3) based techniques, EVA implementation and EVA and managerial performance and control.Till date no other study has been conducted to cover the issues involved in research about EVA.In the present paper we have covered various issues on EVA by reviewing 112 studies on the concept.Apart from this, we have also categorized the studies based on methodologies used by various researchers, country and year-wise publication and breakup of literature reviewed on research related to EVA which is presented in Table III.Some important observations based on the classification of the literature on EVA are given in the following part:-

Breakup of Literature on EVA
Literature on EVA can broadly be classified into seven sub-themes.These are EVA and stock returns, EVA-MVA relationship, managerial behavior and performance management, concept, criticism & implementations issues of EVA, value management & EVA, discounting approaches and their relationship with EVA and review studies on EVA.A brief description of these issues is presented in the following section explaining sub topics covered under each issue.4.1.1EVA and stock returns-This is the most widely covered aspect in the number of studies conducted on the concept of EVA.This includes literature on relationship of EVA and firm performance, evidences from stock returns, comparison of EVA with other accounting measures, portfolio selection tool, testing information content of EVA, error-rate, earning forecasts and residual income model etc. 4.1.2EVA -MVA relationship -This concept includes literature on linkages between EVA and MVA of companies, EVA as proxy for MVA, correlation between EVA & MVA, value drivers, firm performance and MVA, inter-industry analysis and survey, effectiveness of EVA and efficacy score approach etc.It is thus clear from Table IV and Figure 1 that empirical evidences on EVA and stock returns seem to be the dominant research theme.Majority of researchers have worked on EVA and stock returns, as 58 articles out of 112 are on this aspect.Another popular category of research is EVA and its relationship with Market value added (MVA).Only two articles out of 112 studies reviewed have been found to be created on survey of literature that justifies the need for more such studies on literature survey and other related aspects of EVA.

Methodologies used in the studies under review
In the process of reviewing literature on EVA we have also classified the studies on the basis of methodologies used.Different methodologies used by the various researchers are divided into four categories which are conceptual, descriptive, empirical and exploratory cross-sectional.Conceptual papers are those covering basic/fundamental concepts in EVA while studies providing explanation or description of EVA content or process and implementation issues are classified as descriptive studies.Empirical studies cover those which have taken data from existing databases, reviews and case studies.Studies in which data collection is done through survey are classified as exploratory cross-sectional.Table III and figure 2 exhibit the description of methodology used by various researchers over a period of time, while Table V enumerates the studies conducted using different methodologies.As evident from the Table V, out of 112 studies reviewed, 80 are based on empirical methodology that constitutes 71 percent of total studies reviewed.Only 4 percent studies have used exploratory cross-sectional methodology which is the least as compared to conceptual (7 percent) and descriptive (18 percent) approaches.Year-wise and country wise publication on EVA is presented in the following part.

Year -wise and country-wise publication of literature on EVA
The book by Stewart, The Quest for Value (1991), introduces EVA and market value added measures and their benefits.Since then, lots of studies have been conducted on various issues related to EVA.Table VI and Figure 3 summarize year wise break up of studies conducted on EVA.One interesting observation that can be had from Table VI that only 24 (21.4 percent) studies have been published in important journals till 1999, and the remaining 88 (78.6 percent) were published during 2000 -2008.Table VII and Figure 4 summarize the country-wise studies on EVA.One interesting observation that can be drawn from figure 4, that 45 percent (51 articles) studies belong to USA, 19 percent (21 articles) pertain to India and 21 percent (23 articles) studies are conducted in countries like Brazil, Russia, Indonesia, New Zealand, Malaysia etc.Since the concept of EVA was originated from US market hence more popular in same country.It seems that China and UK lag behind as far as research on the concept of EVA is concerned.Some empirical evidences on EVA form succeeding part in the paper.

Empirical evidences on EVA
There has been a growing debate on what influences share prices of a company.A large number of studies have investigated the relationship between accounting numbers and stock returns.Traditionally, studies have focused on accounting profits and earnings but now residual income and cash flow have attracted considerable attention of researchers all over the world.In this review paper a large number of empirical studies on EVA have been presented and their results have been analyzed in order to validate the hypothesis associated with EVA.Careful analysis of literature reveals that any source of accounting based information can influence the share prices.The empirical analysis suggests that earnings generally dominate in explaining variability in stock returns.But earnings should not be relied upon because of its inability to incorporate full cost of capital.It is partially because of this limitation and partially because of increased demand by investors and analysts to correctly identify firm value, the need for research in this area has been intensified.
In contrast to earnings, EVA which is the difference between after -tax operating profits and total cost of capital is a true measure of corporate profitability.As value is the main concern for shareholders, advocates of EVA claim that it is only performance measure that link directly to stock's intrinsic value (Stewart 1991).This as well as other important issues have been covered in the studies conducted on EVA as compared to the traditional measures of firm performance.The following section deals with identifying and highlighting important issues that establishes the relationship between EVA and firm performance and other conventional measures of corporate performance reporting.

Relationship between Economic Value and Stock Returns.
Proponents of EVA claim that EVA is highly correlated with stock returns.EVA derives stock prices (Stewart, 1995;Medeiros, 2005) better than other accounting based performance indicators.Lefkowitz (1999) analyzed the US companies and results of the study supported Stern-Stewart hypothesis, i.e., EVA is better correlated with stock returns as compared to traditional performance measures.They found that EVA is reasonably reliable guide to understand the firm's value.Machuga et al. (2002) in their study highlighted that EVA can be used to enhance future earnings predictions.Lehn & Makhija (1997) investigated the degree of correlation between different performance measures and stock market returns.The results indicate that EVA is the most highly correlated measure with stock returns.Various Studies are also conducted on Incremental information content tests of EVA and provide evidences that it adds significant explanatory power to EPS (Note 6) in explaining stock returns.Bao and Bao (1998) studied the usefulness of EVA and abnormal economic earnings of US firms and results indicate that EVA is a significant factor in market returns and its explanatory power is higher than that of accounting earnings.Chen and Dodd (1997) reported that EVA measure provides relatively more information than the traditional measures of accounting profits.They also found that EVA and RI (Residual Income) variables are highly correlated and identical in terms of association with stock returns.Worthington and West (2004) provided Australian evidences regarding the information content of EVA and concluded that stock returns to be more closely associated with EVA than residual income, earnings and net cash flow.
There are some studies that do not support the claim that EVA provides better stock returns.(Biddle et al., 1997 and1999) analyzed a sample of firms over the period 1984-93 by comparing the stock market adjusted returns against EVA, Residual Income and Operating Cash Flow.The results do not support that EVA dominates traditional performance measures in its association with the stock market returns.Ismail (2006) conducted a study on EVA and its association with stock returns viz-a-viz accounting earnings and stock returns and found that net operating profit after taxes and net income outperform EVA in explaining stock returns.Further, this study states that accruals and operating cash flows have significant incremental information content than EVA.Peterson and Peterson (1996) analyzed traditional and value-added measures of performance and their relationship with stock returns.Their findings state that traditional measures are not empirically less related to stock returns than return on value added measures.Kyriazis and Anastassis (2007) in their study of Greek firms concluded that relative information content tests reveal that net and operating income appear to be more valuable than EVA.EVA components add only marginal information content as compared to accounting profit.
One interested finding related to literature is that most of researchers have used R 2 and panel data regression model to measure value relevance.Recent evidences suggest that these measures may be affected by presence of scale effects in levels regressions (Das and Lev, 1994).Various reasons are suggested by various researchers (Biddle 1998) why EVA performs relatively poor in comparison with other measures like earnings in explaining the stock returns.The important reasons are estimation errors in calculating capital charge (WACC) and accounting adjustments as compared to what market is using to value firms.

EVA adoption and firm value
Firms that adopt EVA appear to have above the average profitability relative to their peers both before and after the adoption of EVA.Further evidences also state that EVA adopters experience increased profitability relative to their peer after adoption of EVA (Ferguson et al.).Further, firms using EVA exhibit a higher percentage of institutional ownership and a lower percentage of insider ownership than non-adopters (Lovata & Costigan, 2002).Grant (1996) conducted a survey to examine the relationship between EVA and Firm Value.Results suggest that EVA significantly impacts the firm value.EVA, REVA (Note 7) and MVA are better measures of firm value (Anand et al. 1999) A major study that addresses the changes made by EVA adopters is by Wallace (1997).It examines the resultant performance of firms using EVA and other residual income techniques.He finds that EVA adopters dispose of more assets and fewer new investments.Shareholders get what they pay for; i.e. performance is greater in the areas that are reinforced by the EVA bonus plan.Biddle et al. (1998) concluded that managers respond to EVA incentives but there is no evidence thus far to support claims that EVA is more associated with firm value than net income.Stewart (1991) examined the relationship between EVA and MVA of US companies and found a stronger correlation between EVA and MVA.Kramer and Pushner (1997) studied the strength of relationship between EVA and MVA.They found that MVA and NOPAT were positive on average but the average EVA over the period was negative.EVA unlike other earnings measures is systematically linked to the market value and it is powerful tool for understanding the investor expectations (O' Byrne, 1996;Finegan, 1991).Ghanbari and More (2007) analyzed the relationship between EVA and MVA of automobile industry in India and results indicate that there are strong evidences to support Stern-Stewart's claim.

Relationship between EVA and Market Value Added (MVA)
There are some studies which claim that traditional measures have better correlation with MVA.Fernandez (2001) examined the correlation between EVA and MVA of 582 American companies for the period 1983-97.It was shown that for 296 firms in the sample the changes in the NOPAT had higher correlation with changes in MVA than the EVA, while for 210 sample firms the correlation between EVA and MVA was negative.Wet ( 2005) conducted a study on EVA-MVA relationship of 89 Industrial firms of South Africa and found that EVA did not show the strongest correlation with MVA.

EVA and Managerial Performance
An appropriate performance measure should assess how managerial actions affect the firm value.In this regard EVA is considered as better alternative to the traditional performance measures such as Profits, EPS, and ROE etc. EVA based performance drive managers to employ firm's assets more productively and it helps in reduction of differences in the interests of the managers and shareholders (Irala, 2005).Biddle et al. (1998) concluded in their study that firms that adopt residual income based incentives plans exhibit increased income.This study supports that managers do respond to residual income based plans.Therefore, EVA and residual income could prove effective in motivating managers for shareholder wealth creation but whether implementation of EVA and residual income based incentives have been truly effective remain an open question for future research."You lose about 50% of the power of EVA if the incentive plan is not truly driven by it" (Stewart 1995).An effective EVA compensation system requires a substantial commutation effort and extensive training for both managers and their subordinates (Ferguson and Leistikow, 1998).Desai and Ferri (2006) in a case study discussed the concept of EVA and its practical applications as a management control system for performance measurement.From the analysis of literature reviewed, it appears that there is no reported study on EVA and managerial performance particularly in developing countries.Therefore, research is needed to understand the basic issues involved in such countries and their comparison of EVA with other developed economies.

Future Directions and Areas of research
As evident from the literature, EVA has been the topic of interest for researchers particularly in USA and few other countries since 1994.Majority of the studies relate to EVA & stock returns and its comparison with traditional measure of corporate performance.But there are many other important areas which need the attention of research as presented in the following section.

Accounting Adjustments and EVA
GAAP related adjustments comprise the most unique and debatable aspect of EVA.Although, these adjustments are argued to produce earnings figures that are closer to cash flows, they are often criticized for having little importance and difficult to understand.Stern-Stewart has suggested 164 possible adjustments to arrive at adjusted net operating profit after taxes for the calculation of EVA.There are still controversies among academicians regarding GAAP related adjustments in EVA calculation.Removal of some accruals through these adjustments is argued to reduce, rather than increase, the information content of EVA.There is a need to harmonize some adjustments that are required to be incorporated in calculation of NOPAT.Another issue of research in EVA adjustments is to examine more closely which components of EVA and earnings contribute to, or subtract from information content (Worthington & West, 2001).

Empirical evidences about developing countries
Empirical evidences available on EVA till date and as evident from Table VI & Figure 3 show that EVA related information are readily available and promoted in the advanced economies like USA, Australia, Brazil, South Africa that facilitate research on the concept contrary to the situation in emerging economies where no good number of studies are published on EVA.This may be another area for future research that provides evidences about the superiority of EVA in other countries particularly the developing ones.

Sector Specific studies
Studies conducted on EVA viz-a -viz traditional measures of corporate performance till date relate to different sectors.These studies fail to provide clear evidences about which metric is more useful in explaining stock returns and can be used as performance measure.Companies selected in these studies relate to various industries.Analyzing sector specific companies by using EVA viz-a -viz traditional measures and comparing results can be another area of research in order to provide sector specific evidences about the concept of EVA.

EVA Applications in other Industries
Most of the studies in EVA pertain to the manufacturing sector across the world.As value added is widely recognized parameter of corporate success, it can be applied in various other areas like education, hospital and tourism etc. Kim (2006) conducted a study and tested the hypothesis on hospitality sectors firms and compared EVA with traditional measures where he found high association of returns of hospitality industry firms that to with EVA.Geyser & Liebenberg (2003) examine introducing EVA as a performance measure for agribusinesses and co-ops in South Africa.In future, researchers could explore how EVA be applied to other industries and comparison of results made to validate the applicability of the concept.

Conclusion
EVA is now recognized as an important tool of performance measurement and management all over the world, particularly in advance economies by adopting it as corporate strategy.Still there are mixed evidences about the superiority of EVA over traditional performance measurement tools.Country specific evidences are also not clear when compared with other residual income metrics.In this review paper, an attempt has been made to review the literature on EVA.We have presented the literature classification scheme by categorizing the articles in seven sub-streams of EVA, viz., EVA -MVA relationship (content a ), EVA and stock returns (content b ), managerial behavior and performance management (content c ), concept, criticism, application and strategy (content d ), value management (content e ), discounting approaches (content f ) and literature survey (content g ); whereas earlier researchers (Worthington &West,2001 andPal &Sura,2007) had not categorized the literature on these bases.It is encouraging to note that last 10 years, in particular 2000 to 2008, have seen a remarkable increase in research on EVA.Empirical research methodology alone accounted for 71 percent among all four methodologies (empirical, conceptual, descriptive and exploratory cross-sectional) From the analysis of studies, it is felt that further research is needed on implementation issues, role of accounting adjustments, empirical evidences in developed economies, EVA as a strategy, EVA and discounting techniques like NPV, IRR and managerial performance measurement aspects of EVA.Empirical studies conducted till date on EVA had used data for smaller period whereas there is scope for future research on the concept by considering the data pertaining to longer durations in order to test the validity of the concept.Therefore efforts should be made in this direction to further broaden the horizon of applicability of this useful concept.

Notes
Note 1. EVA is registered trademark of Stern Stewart & Company.Note 2. MVA is acronym of Market Value Added, another popular measures used to analyse the firm performance.Market Value Added (MVA) is the difference between the current market value of a firm and the capital contributed by investors.If MVA is positive, the firm has added value.If it is negative, the firm has destroyed value.Note 3. The Residual Income (RI) based concept has been recognized by economists since the 18 th century.RI is calculated as follow: RI t = NOPAT t -K t × capital t-1 , where NOPAT is net operating profit after tax, K t is the company's cost of capital , and capital t-1 is the invested capital at the beginning of the year.DCF is a valuation method used to estimate the attractiveness of an investment opportunity.Note 4. NPV, Net Present Value is valuation method widely used in evaluating capital budgeting proposals.It is the difference between the present value (PV) of the future cash flows from an investment and the amount of investment.Present value of the expected cash flows is computed by discounting them at the required rate of return (also called minimum rate of return) Note 5. Discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis uses future free cash flow projections and discounts them (most often using the weighted average cost of capital) to arrive at a present value, which is used to evaluate the potential for investment.If the value arrived at through DCF analysis is higher than the current cost of the investment, the opportunity may be a good one.Note 6.The term earnings per share (EPS) represents the portion of a company's earnings, net of taxes and preferred stock dividends, that is allocated to each share of common stock.The figure can be calculated simply by dividing net income earned in a given reporting period (usually quarterly or annually) by the total number of shares outstanding during the same term.Note 7. Refined economic value added (REVA) provides an analytical framework for evaluating operating performance measures in the context of shareholder value creation.REVA for a given period t is defined as REVA = NOPAT t -Kw(MV t-1 ), where NOPAT is the firm's NOPAT at the end of period t and MW t-1 is the total market value of the firm's assets at the end of period t-1 (beginning of period t) .MV t-1 is given by the market value of the firm's equity plus the book value of the firm's total debt less non-interest-bearing current liabilities, all at the end of period t-1.*Other includes Malaysia, Canada, Brazil, Greece, Russia, New Zealand, Kuwait, Turkey and Indonesia etc.

4. 1 . 3
Managerial behavior and performance management-It includes literature on wealth creation, managerial compensation, agency theory & EVA, performance & compensation, performance evaluation profit sharing and gain sharing plans & EVA aspects.4.1.4Concept, criticism & implementation-This aspect covers literature on EVA as financial management system, strategy, implementation, limitations, facts & fantasy, misconceptions, EVA -adjustments etc. 4.1.5Value management-Value based management (VBM), true value, value creation & measurement, investment recovery and value added, cash value added and share holder value creation, shareholder value drivers etc. are some important aspects that have been studied under this category.4.1.6Discounting approaches-EVA relationship to NPV, (Note 4) reconciliation of variations of DCF valuation, inflation adjustments, Residual Income & DCF (Note 5) approaches etc. are the issues covered under discounting approaches.4.1.7Literature survey-Studies covering comprehensive literature survey are included in this category.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Classification of EVA Literature

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Country-wise publication of studies on EVA

Table I .
Comparison of different Traditional Performance Measures Others Includes Unpublished Thesis and Survey on EVA accessed from Internet.Content a = EVA-MVA relationship; Content b = EVA and stock returns; Content c = Managerial behavior & performance management; Content d = EVA concept, criticism, applications and strategy; Content e = Value management; Content f = Discounting approaches; Content g = Literature surveyTable-IV.Break -up of the literature on EVA *

Table - V
. Distribution of various methodologies used in studies under review

Table -
VI. Year -wise break up of studies on EVA Table -VII.Country-wise publication of studies on EVA