Harnessing Migration for Service Export from Sub Saharan Africa : A New Dawn for an Age Old Phenomenon

Migration issues have enjoyed numerous debates and research in the past two decades. The purpose of this article is to establish the need to re-examine health and education migration to determine if it can be harnessed for an international service exports. Secondary data is analysed to develop a case for harnessing migration in some sectors from the developing countries. The study throws more light on the migration of health and education worker phenomenon by expounding and collating information and puts forward a set of proposition for a research agenda. From the discussions, questions are developed for a more comprehensive quantitative data generation. The direction of the study is a clarion call for data that will be the facilitating factor to propel policy makers to re-examine migration as an export activity. The study contributes to literature on international business specifically migration and international service exports.


Migration of Skilled Personnel
The prevailing national concerns about migration of health and education professionals searching for better opportunities in Europe, North America and other parts of the world cannot be overcome easily.Migration is an age old phenomenon that has been with us over time.Inter -regional emigration to urbanized city centres and migration to neighbouring and developed countries play a central role in the redistribution of labour.Migration estimates by the World Bank for Africans living outside their home country is 30 million (World Bank, March 2011).It must be stated that accurate figures for migration is difficult to come by because most migrants would not go through the appropriate channel to be captured in any data collection.Developing countries particularly have a high rate of migration of skilled labour leading to a depletion of their already low level of human capital.The past few years have seen a large number of professional and highly skilled personnel (notably health and education sectors) moving to other countries especially the developed countries for work related purposes and better opportunities.The number of health and education sector professionals migrating has increased in recent times in response to the demand for their services in major developed countries (Shive, 2010;Chanda, 2002).
Various reasons explain the continued phenomenal migration from the developing countries (Bump, 2006;Alderman, 1994;Fosu, 1992).In Ghana, a number of factors including economic needs, professional career development and remuneration challenges, lack of job equipment and facilities among others are major reasons for migration (Ewusi, 1986;Fosu, 1992;Alderman, 1994;Anarfi & Kwankye, 2003).Migration has had both positive and negative impact on the economies of many developing countries.In Ghana, Anarfi et al. (2003) studies reveal that 14,000 education workers (teachers) migrated between 1975 and 1981 to various countries including the ECOWAS countries.Between 1995 and 2002, health professionals who migrated as against the percentage of those trained over that period shows a phenomenal rate of 69.4% for medical doctors, 27.3 % for dentists, 43.3% for pharmacists and 100% for environmental health specialists (Anarfi et al, 2003).
The extent of the brain drain and the associated shortages of personnel in the various sectors negate the positive gains from migration.Worldwide statistics on international remittances flow from migrants to developing countries was estimated at $351 billion in 2011 (World Bank, 2011).Ghana's remittances increased to $1.8 billion in 2009 from $450 million in 1999 (DFID, 2011).In 2009, the remittances was equal to11% of Ghana's GDP, this and other indicators point to migration being an important phenomena that must be tapped to the nations advantage (DFID, 2011).
Developing countries can exploit the opportunities generated from the positive aspects of migration whilst reducing the negative effects.This calls for a comparative analysis to measure the gains from migration against the drain and the possibility of a planned exporting activity.The choice of the health and education sectors is based on statistics from those sectors in Ghana, studies on the high incidence of migration of these personnel (Ewusi, 1986;Fosu, 1992;Alderman, 1994;Chanda, 2002;Casely Hayford, 2009), and the preceding shortages of such personnel in some developed co untries (Brush, Sochalski and Berger, 2004).
This paper is a discourse on migration, service exports and a call for further research to fill statistical gaps that would aid policy decisions.The specific objective of this study is to identify critical issues and a research agenda for an in-depth analysis

The Problem in Developing Countries
The health and education sectors have had phenomenal migration rates in many developing countries in recent times (Shive, 2010;Larsen et al., 2002;Chanda, 2002).International initiatives to develop policies to respond to this complex problem have not curbed the phenomenon (UN, 2006;Timur, 2000).Chanda (2002) estimates that about 10,000 health professionals left South Africa alone between 1989 and 1997.In Egypt another 10,000 health sector personnel migrated, and Ghana recorded a 60% of medical doctors who left the shores, not forgetting the nursing and other professions whose numbers are phenomenal (Chanda, 2002).This puts the phenomena on startling levels creating a drain for most developing countries.Even with the OECD countries introduction of direct recruitment policies initiated in 2005, developing countries are still faced with the challenge of migration in these sectors (Dumont & Lemaître, 2006).
Besides the negative impact of brain drain there are the positive effects derived from remittances, investments, knowledge, equipment and ideas transfer.This flow back brings about the comparison of the two concepts -brain drain and brain gained.The existing literature on brain drain sees it as a problem -shortage of skilled professionals and a loss of human capital that must be stopped.That on brain gain sees programmed export as an improvement.There are recorded benefits from brain drain, remittances, improved human capital and others (Shive, 2010;Batista & Vicente, 2007;Beine, Docquier & Rapoport, 2006).Other sources have advocated for the benefits of a planned migration programme.So far not much has been done to comparatively study the two concepts to establish which is more advantageous.
Most developing countries are already exporting some form of service but the absence of comparable detailed research studies make diversification difficult.In comparison with other areas of statistical information, there is limited internationally accepted statistical data on migration from the sectors in developing countries like Ghana for example.This creates a gap in the available information.In Ghana, the health minister's assertion that migration in the sector has reduced from 68% to 2% within a year needs statistics for confirmation (JOY News, 2012).Hoffman and Lawrence (1996) have emphasized the difficulty of finding reliable data on migration due to the variety of sources used to generate such information.Also the lack of data on the stock and flow (inflow and outflow) of these professionals is a major challenge that hinders its management.
Export activities in many developing countries focus on goods thus overshadowing the opportunities in diversifying into service exports.But is the issue that simple?

Literature Overview
To date, migration has taken a different turn.Large numbers of the well educated professionals are migrating and seeking better job opportunities in the developed countries.Well educated professionals basically are those who have completed higher education (college and professional courses) as well as those with technical and practical work experience (Wereko, 1997;Faulwetter, 1986).
Most of the health and education professionals migrate due to economic and social situation, others for work related reasons.Various studies have examined the magnitude of international migration.Large scale migration due to economic reasons took shape in the early 1980s in Ghana (Anarfi et al, 2003).This was in response to weakened economic conditions, growing unemployment and job availability, better remuneration, political and social instability and the lack of career opportunities (Ewusi, 1986;Fosu, 1992;Alderman, 1994;Anarfi et al, 2003).Whether the reasons for migrating is economic or social, developing countries can exploit the natural situation to their advantage by monitoring, evaluating and coming out with studies that examine the factor advantage generated from migration.Salmon et al., (2008) in their research concluded that managed migration programme in the Caribbean led to the training of nurses for export and temporary migration.If it is managed and the nations involved benefit financially from a planned programme then service exports from the developing countries would be achieved.In the Philippines the "nurse for export" programme has been implemented to test the concept (Binod, 2008;Lorenzo et al, 2007).The study concluded that the policy option to overcome the challenge of migration of health professionals with an export activity is leading to human capital development, benefits to migrant families and economic growth for the country.There is the need for this kind of research to analyze and throw more light on the issue and compare available statistics.This will ensure that developing countries would weigh the options based on the costs and benefits, and determine the advantages or disadvantages there of.

Brain Drain/Brain Gained
Brain drain is caused by migration and has been a daunting problem for developing countries especially Africa where it is seen mainly as a drain and a loss.The drain is not limited to the medical and educational professionals who leave to seek employment there but the young migrants who leave to pursue higher education abroad and other groups of people.The International Organization for Migration puts the figure at 20,000 professionals leaving Africa each year since 1990 (Trebeje, 2005).The movement of people from one place in the world ostensibly for better conditions cannot be eliminated.According to Watanabe (1970), brain drain covers all forms of migration including trained professionals.Todaro (1977) defined it as the migration of well educated and skilled professionals from developing countries.Wereko (1997) distinguished between the types of brain drain and examines it from three (3) main points: the people involved (emigrant), the country losing its citizen and the country gaining from the phenomenon.All these studies are aimed at finding the causes and effects, ways to manage and find lasting solutions that will benefit all parties involved.
The World Book Dictionary (Thorndike & Barnhart, 1987) defined brain drain as the "shortage of professional or skilled labour caused by the emigration" of professionals to a more favourable "labour market".Beine, Docquier and Rapoport (2006), Dovlo (2004), Dovlo & Nyonator (1999), have all argued that international migration is causing a drain on developing countries.Further, Katz and Rapoport (2005); McCormick and Wahba (2000) and Stark, Helmenstein and Prskawetz (1997) have also noted in their studies that the brain drain though causing a loss on human capital is bringing benefits that is helping with development and alleviating poverty.
The 'drain' cannot be prevented, nothing can be done about it therefore it is better to plan with it and not against it.But how can one gain through planning with an uncontrollable, voluntary and democratic process?How do the positive and negative effects of brain drain and brain gain balance out?
To gain from a planned and directed process of international migration would call for and may require institutions or economies to impose on its citizens such a programme.This may seem like a conscription which may or may not favour the gains that would be expected to be generated from it.Planning international migration like a service is quite problematic because services are intangible and not a commodity that can easily be developed, launched and sold like a physical product.Zeithaml, Bitner and Gremler (2013), Lovelock andWirtz (2011), andPalmer (2005) have discussed the challenges inherent in service development.They emphasized that the characteristics of services-intangibility, inseparability, variability/heterogeneity, preishability and process-oriented nature of services make it challenging to plan on a large scale.The dependent human factor makes planning to capitalize and sell migration a daunting task.
Brain drain deprives a nation of its well educated and skilled personnel (human capital).Intellectual property is lost (Todaro, 1997).But the reverse (returns from migration) and positive effect from remittances, additional/improvement in skills, resources and investments have been recorded by the World Bank (2011) and other researchers to bring in gains to the sending country that is making a difference in economic growth and development (Docquier and Marfouk, WB2005;Beine et al., WBER2007;Dumont and Lemaître, OECD2006).
Another issue is the fact that the drain in addition takes personnel away from their home country either for a short or long period of time and may be permanent.But to gain from the drain would only lead to personnel moving away from home for a specified period.This may lead to investments in education which could be a backbone for a planned programme.Are the gains enough to warrant a planned programme?Brain drain is reported to be leading directly to resource and assets build -up in addition to remittances to family members in the home/sending countries (McCullock & Yellen, 1977;Anarfi et al, 2003).The first asset that returned migrant come with is the vast experience gained from their sojourn.But this is not a guaranteed gain from migration since experiences have credence qualities and therefore it is difficult to measure.Until empirical studies record evidence from such gains it will be difficult to assess.Investments in productive business have been recorded in some migrant countries (Anarfi et al, 2003).Grubal and Scott (1966), Bhagwati and Hamada (1974), McCullock and Yellen (1977) examined these positive gains from migration.But it calls for an understanding by governments of migrant countries to develop measures to intervene with policies and levies on assets and resources acquired to gain from migration in a planned programme.Further, remittances are major gains from migration, but are they likely to increase in volume or cedi equivalent or decrease?What is the volume of the brain drain (human capital loss) of skilled personnel from Ghana?What is the size (percentage) of the brain gained?Is the brain drain and gains sustainable or limited to a period?Is migration per se a problem that warrants its management or curtailment?Migration has been examined and discussed by many researchers who see it as an integral part of globalization and development (Mpinganjira, 2010, Tebeje, 2005;Shinn, 2002;Wereko, 1997).
A free decision by individuals but the reported returns from migration (World Bank, 2012) is fostering countries that experience gains to consider 'conscripted' planned programmes (human capital development as a service).Are the net gains high enough to warrant a planned programme?The answers will emerge from this study.

Methodology
Secondary data was sourced from Google scholar and academic web pages.One article led to another in a snowballing effect.Journal articles and agency specific data were sourced.The main requirement for selecting journals and data for the review were that it dealt with international migration, policies on migration, brain drain, brain gain, service export, and health and education sector mobility.This method helped to focus and explore the necessary data to understand what needs to be done.The aim of the analysis is to review and establish the need to re-examine migration especially in the health and education sectors in developing countries such as Ghana to establish the need for data on the net effects and comparative quantitative information to aid policy makers.

Situation Analysis
The volume of migration flows from developing countries has increased even though the economic crisis is still looming in some developed countries.The OECD (2010) data indicates that international migrants from Africa rose from 16.3 million in 2000 to 19.2million in 2010.As at 2013, it is estimated that 30million Africans have left their home country to various locations.Figure 1 indicates the percentage of the various country population that have migrated.Cape Verde has the highest percentage (38%) of its population per the figure 1. Migration from the West African zone has seen varying levels.Ghana had a 46% rate of migration as compared to other West African countries in 2005 (OECD, 2005) Clemens and Pettersson (2006) estimated a 56% of medical doctors and 24% of trained nurses worked outside Ghana.Sierra Leone has a 2.2% net migration rate per 1000 people for the period 2005-2010, Liberia 13.3%, the Gambia 1.8% and Liberia13.3%for the same period (Ratha et al, 2011).The figures may not seem alarming but the stock of skilled professionals that migrate causes substantial effects on these countries.Data on skilled migrant is difficult to come by since most African countries do not collate such information.Varying data is collected by different sectors that need to provide license for highly trained personnel.Skilled migration rates in Africa are rather high.This is due to many factors including seeking higher education, better work conditions and a host of other economic, political and social factors.
In contrast, studies have monitored the quantum of returns from migration and the concept of brain gained.Faini (2006), Beine et al. (2006Beine et al. ( , 2003Beine et al. ( , 2001)), Mountford (1997) and Vidal (1998) have documented returns from migration in their studies to support the brain gain concept.Brain gain is the returns in terms of investments in productive ventures, assets and property repatriation, and return of more resourced and improved migrants.The gains from migration are spearheading the call to harness the phenomenon.Currently, most African governments are exploiting avenues to bring in migrants in the 'diaspora' to contribute to development in various sectors.Another major factor emanating from migration is the remittances from migrants to family members.
A number of studies have linked migration and remittances with financial sector growth in migrant countries.Ambrosius et al. (2008) in his research linked the flow of remittance to an appreciable growth in developing countries' financial sector.Quartey's (2004) studies on 'remittance and poverty reduction', Ratha et al. (2007) on remittance and the 'macroeconomy ', Gupta et al. (2007) on remittance and 'economic growth and development' are all relevant research with useful conclusions.These studies reveal the immense impact of remittances on sending countries.
The World Bank (2011), OECD (2010) and migration economists have noted that foreign inward transfer has a great potential for propelling growth and development.These flows are mainly from migrants who remit relatives.The total foreign remittances as against the gross domestic growth for Ghana make calls for managing migration and harnessing it for development a necessity.The table below indicates the estimated migrant remittances to Ghana from 2005 to 2012.The figures are compared to the gross domestic product for the country to show the volume of transfers from migrants for the period.(2003) discussions on remittances emphasizes its propensity to increase economic activities and household income thereby "trickling -up economics".Remittances therefore have the ability to increase economic growth of a country, facilitating a stable source of funds and changing household income level.It facilitates foreign exchange supply.Sanders (2007) have documented net returns of migration in his studies of the Caribbean countries.Ghana with a population of 23.8 million and GDP growth rate of 5.8% (average percentage between 2005 and 2009) has made considerable strides from returns from migration.It has helped to cushion household and investment income making it an important index for economic development.The remittance and gains from migration in effect have the ability to reduce poverty.From the available data on remittances flow from Ghana, the Bank of Ghana (2011) stated that remittances between 1999 and 2009 led to an 11% increase in the GDP leading to increases in enterprise and development activities.Further returned migrants bring a worth of knowledge acquired through plying their service abroad which can be of great benefit to the country.These experts become facilitators and role models leading to a "netgain" (Pittman, 2010).The debate of brain gained from return migrated personnel will continue until several researches confirm it with tentative documentation.
The Philippines is testing the sustainability of the "nurse for export" programme (Lorenzo et al, 2007;Binod, 2007;Salmon et al, 2007).Research on these pilot programme findings indicate that the "nurse for export" programme in the Philippines and the Caribbean is addressing the internal nurse shortage and managing the prevailing migration.The economic impact may shadow exporting activities but the net gains from exporting services cannot be over ruled.The football player transfer and migration issue is a factor that can be factored in to weigh the gains from migration or temporary migration.

Challenges in the Health and Education Sectors in Developing Countries
Various studies indicate that the health and education professionals who do not migrate or drain face the following challenges: 1) Lack of equipment and necessary support systems.
Both reports make mention of the issue of health worker migration.The education sector is also challenged with manpower shortages and lack of equipment (Casely -Hayford, 2009).A synopsis of the challenges in the health sector range from the lack of facilities, equipment and needed support systems to shortages of personnel and funds (Ewusi, 1986;Fosu, 1992;Alderman, 1994;Chanda, 2002;Anarfi and Kwankye, 2003).Following from the above: 1) Makes for stunted professional development and expertise, and poor service delivery.
2) Makes for inadequate means to support family and for investment-net loss to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth.
In Ghana for example, the two sectors have their unique challenges but a critical examination of migration has led to shortages of staff and gaps in service delivery (Dovlo, 2004).
Significant moves have been made in various countries in sub-Saharan Africa and on international fronts to harness migration of skilled personnel.Lautier ( 2008) study of Tunisia's export of health services is an example.The Philippines, India, Caribbean export mainly ICT professional services.These are not considered as having a critical local demand as health and education professionals in a developing context.(Salmon et al., 2008;Binod, 2008;Kotabe et al., 1998).There is the need for developing countries to learn from each other by studying pilot cases and programmes instituted to manage migration.The Philippines and Caribbean programme is a step that can be studied and applied in other developing countries faced with migration in the case sectors.And this calls for this study to measure the indicators to determine the underlying factors and concepts, compare across various country studies-Philippines, Caribbean and India and check if the ratios are enough to warrant a service export.

Receivers of the Migrants
Migration of professionals is fueled by the availability of employment and all other advantages that come with it.Brush, Sochalski and Berger ( 2004) have established the need of foreign personnel in the health sector in the developed countries like the United States (USA).Chandra et al ( 2007) studies confirm the need of these professionals in the USA.According to both studies, health care facilities struggle to fill current staffing vacancies, and an undersupply is predicted over the next twenty years (Chandra et al., 2007;Brush et al., 2004).The access to international markets for employment for the health and education professionals abound.
Despite the volume of migration by health and education professionals from the developing countries, studies indicate that inadequate supply still existing in a number of developed countries.Simoens et al. (2005) in their study recorded high nurse vacancy rates in the developed countries and this according to ICN report ( 2004) constitute an important area of concern.In the USA, there is an upsurge in employing foreign recruit in the sector.Their employment projections for nurses till 2014 gives an estimate of 1.2 million "new and replacement nurses" (Hecker, 2005).With such vacancies migrants have a higher chance of getting employment therefore it acts like an enabler to the phenomenon.Undersupply of health and education professionals in developing countries will persist for the next twenty years.

Exporting Services
Service marketing has gained international recognition due to the fact that it is the driving force for the growth of many developed economies gross domestic product.Trade in services is increasing worldwide.Services export make up about 25% of the total value of world trade (Kotabe et al, 1998).Developed countries have gone beyond providing services locally to exporting to international markets.Globalization is another factor that has increased world trade in services.The sharp increase in service trade is partly due to development and integration of telecommunications and information technology in business operations.Technology especially electronic communications is making it possible for businesses to provide services faster and in a more convenient way.Now it is possible for firms to locate anyway in the world so far as communication is efficient and effective.In addition to technological changes, innovations by service firms have led to the development of new and improved service products.In the developing countries, services are emerging as the panacea to increasing revenues leading to growth and development, and transformation of these nations.The vast improvements in transportation and communication and the emergence of electronic commerce have made it easier for business to export services from developing countries.But service exports have not been given much attention in Africa.This may be partly due to the lack of awareness in many developing countries about the importance of services in development leading to weak and inconsistency in policies relating to the sector.Also the pace of development in terms of telecommunication and information technologies to promulgate the export of people -intensive services across borders in some developing countries is slow.UNCTAD, the World Trade Organization (1998), and the International Trade Centre ( 2006) have jointly come out with different studies on the expansion of service exports particularly relating to market access, challenges and opportunities for developing countries.But most developing countries are faced with major constraints that hinder the building of a competitive service sector.The service industry is still growing and some nations are still at the infant stage.
To sustain growth in the service sector requires a shift to other sectors with comparable factor advantage to exploit it to the fullest.Migration and service export diversification seems like an elusive activity but a comparative study would provide the needed information to evaluate its advantage.

Classification of Service for Export
Service exports is basically getting revenue for providing services beyond the original country borders or providing services to a 'non-resident' customer in the original country.There are four major ways in which services can be exported according to the Uruguay Round negotiations on the General Agreement on Trade in Services-GATS (ITC/Commonwealth Secretariat, 2002).The first form is the "Cross -border trade" where services are provided from one country into another.The second mode is "Consumption abroad".With this, a visiting 'non-resident' consumer consumes services abroad.The third way is "commercial presence" in which the service provider establishes physical presence abroad and the fourth -"Movement of natural persons".This involves people moving across borders to provide services.This classification follows similar works done in that area (Lovelock & Yip, 1996;Eramilli, 1990;Shostack, 1977).Patterson and Cicic's (1995) service performance based on the level of tangibility and inseparability classification follows GATS differentiation of the modes of service exports."Cross border trade" reorganizes and package the service in a form that can be exported like training programs and services with minor or major goods components.The "consumption abroad" method of exporting services aligns with "location-free" services (Patterson & Cicic, 1995).This method does not restrict the consuming importers' location.Its mode emphasizes its short-term and transient nature.
GATS last two classification "commercial presence" and "movements of natural persons" are highly people-based processing that involves long term establishment in the international market.The former calls for adapting services to meet the standards of the international customer.The latter is highly delivery sensitive, that is, both consumer and producer of the service must be present.
The distinction between the four ways of exporting services forms the basis for examining a natural phenomenon-migration from an export perspective.Health and education professionals fall into the "movement of natural persons' category of the export services and this contributes to a better analysis of the phenomenon.
The question one will ask is that services are performances and they are not created or performed until they are actually delivered therefore exporting it can be complex and challenging.The characteristics of services are another challenge that makes it seem difficult to export.The demand for health and education professionals in the developed country cannot be over ruled but are the figures adequate to warrant an export drive.Documented evidence indicates that these demands are highly creating shortages in the developing countries that need to be addressed also.

Harnessing Migration for Export Development
The export of services is almost always tackled from the development policy angle.As such most literature on migration may be assumed to have some aspect of policy or development concerns.The main themes in migration studies focus on the brain drain, remittances, economic and policy development (Alderman, 1994, Benavides, 1997).In recent years, policy makers and analyst have begun to put more emphasis on the net gains from migration and the positive aspects which can be harnessed for national development.In Ghana, various studies on migration look at it from policy perspective and its effects on economic development and poverty reduction (Anarfi & Kwankye, 2003;Fosu, 1992;Ewusi, 1986).The call for migration to be annexed as an exporting activity started with the Caribbean States and the Philippines (Salmon et al, 2008;Batata, 2005;Bernavides, 1997).These calls stemmed from the magnitude of the immigration of particular sector professionals and the benefits that had been recorded from studies done.The benefits of harnessing migration for exporting purposes have been highlighted by various researchers (Kotabe et al., 1998;Salmon et al., 2008;Binod, 2008).In addition to managing migration in the sectors studied, an exporting activity would ensure that local shortages are managed.Advantages of a managed migration programme include: -Development of local capacity to create jobs.-Recruitment and management of workers.-Foreign earnings from the workers in the service export programme.-Data on migration readily available (assuming everybody agrees to the involuntary recruitment and posting to foreign lands).Salmon et al, (2008) review of the managed migration programme for the health sector records various advantages.Among them is the development of local capacity that creates jobs for the people.In addition the Caribbean pilot case has recorded tremendous advantages in terms of recruitment and management of work in those sectors (Salmon et al, 2008;Batata, 2005).The foreign earnings that can be generated from such a programme cannot be under underestimated.The data on migrant would also be an important document for government strategies and the sectors.The feasibility of a health and education sector exports in Ghana have been discussed in various quarters but nothing tentative has come up.This study, it is hoped would whip up a new interest for the development of other avenues for migration management and service export diversification and a call for data to support it.There is the need for a study that would examine the prevailing migration of the health and education professionals from Ghana to comparatively determine the advantage of a planned programme.

Justification of the Review
The question of managing the movements of professionals to developed countries ostensibly for better emoluments and conditions is prevailing in Africa and cannot be overcome easily.There is the need for this kind of research to throw more light on the issue.Migration of trained professionals is a big challenge in Africa especially Ghana and this study would contribute to the understanding of a less researched area of international business practice-service exports.
The proposed comparative research it is hoped would lead to new and exciting insights providing a deeper understanding of the benefits, challenges and issues that are important to the study.Comparisons sharpen the focus of analysis on the case sectors identifying gaps, new directions and different perspectives on the issue.
Further study should exploit migration variables in the sector chosen to provide statistics that can be used by academics to develop theory thereby adding to the existing knowledge on the subject.The outcome of the study would help policy makers to determine the viability of a planned program.It would also generate interest in diversifying service exports and create awareness to reflect the changing needs of the sectors discussed.
This study called for examining migration literature and developing service export theories to attempt to explain the gaps in knowledge and determine the direction that could be exploited.Theory development under service exports or exporting services is lacking and comparative data it is hoped will facilitate the development of tentative theory that will come out of the unique contingencies identified.The advantage or disadvantage of harnessing and repackaging health and education services for export calls for examining all national indicators and international differences and migration to point to possible direction that could be exploited.This will eventually make a valuable and practical contribution to theory development.Exporting services cannot be overlooked, it is changing and influencing academic research because no grounded theory or constructs have been established to propel and promote the activity.Comparative indicators for harnessing the health and education professional migration into an export activity would significantly help developing countries to know the way forward.

Conclusion
Developing countries need coherent and practical policies that can lead to effective management of the health and education professional migration.Migration policies should be revised to include new innovative ideas that would lead to income generation and economic development for sending countries.Programmes such as the health and education personnel for export and return of skilled personnel for development should be encouraged.Remittance inflows are external source of funds that are helping migrant families and play an important role in economic growth and development in sending countries.Secondly, migration management programmes should be part of sending country strategies.Harnessing migration for export would need data and comparative analysis for policy development.The drain and benefit of the prevailing migration has led to many considerations to manage it.The study examines the pros and cons of migration and prospects of considering it for a marketing activity-service exports.Service export is a more innovative alternative to migration that leads to a more legal circular movement of people.In international business the problem of exporting a service which is an intangible product is froth with many questions.Further the problem of migration of health and education sector personnel is a big challenge that developing countries are grappling with.Therefore, the question put forward for future research is to measure the direct effects of health and education sector migration and identify the net results to exploit the idea of an export activity.Many studies have examined migration but there are no quantitative studies that measure the net effect of brain drain and brain gained to weigh the option of diversifying into an export activity.Developing countries especially those in Africa are challenged with this phenomenon that has seen large studies but our readiness to exploit it to our advantage makes a call for data to measure country specific information a necessary endeavour.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Stock of migrants from Africa, 2010 (percentage of the population) World Bank (2011)

Table 1 .
(World Bank, 2012) migrant remittances from 2005 -2012 in US dollars (raw figures) India with $58 billion, China $57 billion, Mexico $24 billion and the Philippines with $23 billion respectively were the top recipient of remittances in 2011(World Bank, 2012).Developing countries' share of global remittances from migrants (the World Bank in 2006 estimated that such remittances reduced poverty by "11% in Uganda, 6% in Bangladesh and 5% in Ghana) making it a delicate topic to unravel.Remittances are the funds transferred to developing countries from migrants.Kapur and McHale