Repatriation : Furthering the Research Agenda through the Lens of Commitment , Uncertainty Reduction and Social Cognitive Career Theories

There is extensive evidence that repatriation of international assignees is not always successful. High turnover amongst repatriating staff within two years of an assignment is regularly reported to be double the expected turnover rate of non expatriated employees. Previous research has linked turnover to dissatisfaction of the repatriation process. The purpose of this paper is to extend existing knowledge through the examination of three theories; uncertainty reduction, commitment and social cognitive theories whilst considering the influence of HRM. The paper derives assumptions based on extending existing theoretical foundations to consider HRM upon the repatriation experience.


Introduction
Global business, encompassing global operations, is here to stay and much of the literature within the area professes to the stable growth of international assignments (PwC, 2012).The implication is that more people than ever are required to work in a country that is not their ordinary permanent home.The study of expatriates, defined as an employee sent on an international assignment by their employer, has had greater focus over the last 25 years.Similarly the area of repatriation, defined as the moment the employee returns to the home organisation, has gained attention from the academic community (Chi and Chen, 2007;Kraimer, Shaffer and Bolino, 2009;Suutari and Brewster, 2003;Sanchez Vidal, Sanz Valle and Barba Aragon, 2010).The interest into repatriation stems from reports that up to 26% of repatriates leave their organisation within two years of completing their assignment, compared to 13% of expected annual turnover (Brookfield GMAC 2012).Thus the impact of increased turnover caused by repatriation is worthy of further research.
One of the reasons cited in previous literature that contributes to repatriated turnover is the repatriation process.Practical implications identified from previous research into international assignments include the need to manage the repatriation process (Hyder & Lovblad, 2007;Lazarova & Cerdin 2007).Authors such as Caligiuri and Colakoglu (2007: 399) postulate that researchers and practitioners need to consider how to integrate expatriate management within the overall HR strategy.In their study they found no evidence of alignment between management strategies and expatriate management strategies.Furthermore, they argue that future research requires greater refinement in order to understand the nature of alignment in the international HR context.In order to progress the research agenda three prominent theories will be reviewed to derive assumptions for further research into the repatriation process.Firstly, Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT) will be reviewed.URT (Berger and Calbrese, 1975) has been the foundation for prior repatriation models (Black & Gregersen, 1992) and has contributed extensively to the research agenda.The focus of URT research is to reduce the uncertainty surrounding an expatriation.Secondly, Commitment Theory (CT) will be reviewed.Previous research has established CT (Mowday, Porter andSteers, 1982: Meyer andAllen, 1991) as a means to investigate turnover intentions which are critical during the repatriation phase of an assignment.The influence of HRM in terms of HR policy and resulting HR practices to strengthen commitment to the organisation is considered.Finally, how an individual navigates their career incorporating an international assignment is considered through Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) developed by Lent, Brown and Hackett, (1994).SCCT introduces the concept of receptivity towards an international assignment and again acknowledges the role of HR practices and support offered to international assignees (Tharenou, 2002).As each of these theories is considered, propositions will be developed to serve as the basis to develop our understanding of repatriation retention rates and how Human Resources Management (HRM) can contribute to reducing attrition.

Repatriation Activities
It has long been noted that identifying better supporting practices could help to develop more grounded expectations of repatriation (Allen & Alvarez, 1998;Suutari & Brewster, 2003).Black, Gregersen and Mendenhall (1992: 230) argue that there are three problematic areas for the international assignee and their families with regard to repatriation adjustment: Firstly, finding a new position, secondly, communicating with home country colleagues and friends and, lastly, the general culture of the home country.Suutari and Valimaa's (2002) research into Finnish repatriates further develops our understanding of the issues repatriates face.Their research highlights that Human Resource Management (HRM) needs to consider the length of time on assignment.Suutari and Valimaa (2003) argue additional support maybe required for the repatriate to adjust to the home organisation due to the long absence.In addition those repatriates who experienced difficulty in adjusting during their assignment are likely to need extra support upon their return.Identifying a new job in the home organisation requires early consideration in order to alleviate unnecessary uncertainty.Moreover the impact of undertaking an assignment and the individual's career requires clarity prior to repatriation.These issues experienced by the repatriates are further compounded by differing expectations between the assignee and the organisation (Chi and Chen, 2007).This might extend to non-work issues such as job assistance for the returning partner (Paik, Segaud & Malinowski, 2002).These different expectations can influence the repatriate's commitment to the organisation he/she returns to and lead to resignation (Stahl, Chua, Caliguri, Cerdin and Taniguchi, 2009).The activities associated with repatriation are undertaken by the organisation through their HRM policies and relating HR practices.Thus concerted HR activities to support the repatriate require greater understanding.

Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT)
Exploring uncertainty reduction theory (URT), Berger and Calabrese (1975) provide a focus of reducing uncertainty by using human communication to gain knowledge about the other person.The theory proposes seven axioms.The first one contends that the more you speak with another person the more likely you are to feel comfortable with that person.The second axiom refers to nonverbal communication, proposing that uncertainty reduces the more nonverbal communication takes place.Thirdly, individuals are likely to seek more information to reduce their level of uncertainty.Fourthly high levels of uncertainty in a relationship cause a decrease in the confidence level of communication content.The fifth axiom states that where there are high levels of uncertainty they are reflected by high levels of mutual exchange between individuals.Sixthly, similarity reduces the uncertainty between people conversely where there are dissimilarities the likelihood is that uncertainty levels are increased.Finally, the seventh axiom proposes that increases in uncertainty level produce decreases in liking.Thus, the axioms suggested by Berger and Calabrese define how future communication between two individuals will continue in the light of uncertainty.The more people communicate the greater the likelihood that they will form a relationship, thus reducing uncertainty.The theory suggests for repatriates that reducing uncertainty via training and communication will facilitate a successful assignment by enabling the assignee to establish relationship in the host country.However, the continued relationship with the home country is equally important in terms of reducing uncertainty.Whether this communication is undertaken by line management or HR function is under researched.

Repatriation and URT
Drawing conclusions for the effects expected when applying URT in the context of repatriation requires further investigation.Black et al (1992) developed a theoretical framework specifically to address repatriation adjustment.They believe that the area of repatriation offers additional challenges and that developing a systematic approach can assist in finding predictors of repatriation adjustment.The focus is to provide organisational interventions that will help the repatriate to re-adjust.Previous evidence reported by Black and Gregersen (1991a) argues repatriation adjustment has three related yet distinct facets: adjustment to work, adjustment to interacting with home internationals and adjustment to the general environment and culture.Black and Gregersen (1991a) argue that repatriation adjustment is multifaceted which is important for two reasons.Firstly, an antecedent could be related to one or all facets and secondly, if repatriation adjustment is multifaceted then is it possible that certain facets will be more or less strongly related to outcomes such as turnover and job performance.Black et al's repatriation model (1992) is divided into two parts; pre return adjustment conducted prior to repatriation such as pre return training; interaction with home country; visit to home country related to work and non work related tasks.Post-return adjustment is divided into four variables: individual such as overseas adjustment; job variables such as role discretion, promotions utilisation of skills; organisational variables such as clear repatriation process, financial compensation and post arrival training; non-work variables such as social status, housing conditions and spouse adjustment.
The model is offered to assist identification of the antecedents that affect repatriation adjustment and therefore influence the interventions that might to aid successful repatriation.Thus drawing conclusions that the more information provided to the repatriate the more this will assist the repatriation process.However, it is unclear as to who is responsible for the repatriation process and whether the repatriate has to seek the information or is supported by the HR function to gain the necessary communications.

Proposition 1 1a) Maintaining communication with home HR and line management will positively relate to reduction in uncertainty;
1b) partner and family support prior to repatriation will be positively related to reducing uncertainty; 1c) continued partner and family support will be positively related to reducing uncertainty of the repatriate.

Commitment and HR Practices
Strong links between organisational commitment and turnover have been demonstrated in previous research (Gregersen & Black, 1996;Mowday, Porter & Steers, 1982;Sturges &Guest, 2001: van Breugel, van Olffen andOlie, 2005).With respect to commitment during and after international assignments, the actual work experiences are more closely related to commitment than job characteristics (Black et al, 1992).International assignments are often said to provide an employee with greater autonomy and levels of responsibility than previously experienced, as such repatriation has often been reported as an anticlimax for the returning expatriates who find themselves in a role that does not offer the same challenge contributing towards the repatriates feeling of being under valued (Doherty and Dickman, 2009;Stroh, Gregersen and Black, 1998).Gregersen and Black (1996) argue that greater commitment from the assignee was found where the international experience was perceived to be valued by the organisation.
Organisational commitment has been defined as the link between the employee and his or her organisation that makes it less likely that the employee with voluntarily leave the organisation (Allen & Meyer, 1996:252).Arguably providing supportive HR practices will enhance the assignees commitment towards the organisation.According to Meyer and Allen's (1991) three-component model of commitment there are three "mind sets" which can characterize an employee's commitment to the organization outlined below: Affective Commitment: AC is defined as the employee's positive emotional attachment to the organization.An employee is committed to the organisation because they want to work there.Thus the repatriate would want to return to the home organisation.
Continuance Commitment: The individual commits to the organisation because he/she perceives high costs of losing organisational membership, including financial costs such as pension and social costs such as friendships with colleagues formed in the home and host location.The employee remains a member of the organisation because they have no choice to leave without making a loss.
Normative Commitment: The individual feels obliged towards the organisation.There are many possible origins for the feelings of obligation.For example, the repatriate may feel an obligation to repay the associated benefits of an international assignment.Lastly there may be influences from internalised norms, already developed through family or other socialization processes, that one should be loyal to one's organisation.Therefore remaining with the organisation is the right thing to do.Meyer and Allen (1991) stress that these components of commitment are not mutually exclusive, therefore it is likely that an employee will be simultaneously committed to the organisation in an affective, normative, and continuance way, at varying degrees of intensity.Further thought to this idea led Meyer and Herscovitch (2001) to argue that at any point in time, an employee has a profile reflecting their personal commitment.Each of these mind sets may have different effects on workplace behaviour such as job performance, absenteeism, and the likelihood that an employee will leave the organisation.Meyer, Stanley, Hersovitch and Toplonytsky (2002) support this view through their research findings suggesting that managers interested in encouraging commitment with their workforce could look towards HR policies and practices to further perceptions of support.
The links between actual HR practices and policies as perceived from an individual and organisational perspective are currently underexplored within the literature (Kinnie, Hutchinson, Purcell & Rayton, 2005).With regard to expatriate commitment, Furuya, Stevens, Oddou, Bird and Mendenhall (2007) note that the HR policies and practices exerted as part of the repatriation process can only add to the assignees perception that the organisation does indeed value their contribution.However, the delivery of HRM is called into question through the research undertaken by McEnvoy and Buller (2013: 222) who argue that even the HR function believe that the repatriation process requires significant improvement.Thus, HR policies and practices can enhance expatriates' commitment towards the organisation.It is therefore vital to look into HR policies and practices when one seeks to explain repatriate commitment as well the influence of different employment relationships.
Repatriation involves a home and host organisation the employment relationship can be described as atypical.Torka's (2004) research focuses on commitment in atypical employment relationships, such as temporary workers.These alternative work relationships are based on differing commitments towards the organisation and employing agency (Connelly, Gallagher and Gilley, 2007).Torka's (2004) study found that commitment of atypical workers depends on a range of Human Resource Management choices.Taking into account that temp workers deal with two organisations, namely, the host organisation and their agency, the implication for the HR function of the host organisation is that they have less responsibility since the temporary agencies will undertake recruitment and selection and rewards for temporary staff.Similar to temp works, repatriates deal with two organisations: the home and the host organisation.Seemingly, administration of HR tasks may no longer be central to home HR as Host HR has taken over all of the HR practices.HR activities may be undertaken by different HR points of contact such as: Home HR; Host and Home HR; Line manager; shared HR services; outsourced provider or combination of any of these (Williams, Howe-Walsh and Scott, 2012).
But how do atypical workers and international assignees have similar scenarios?One could argue that international assignments provide another atypical work employment relationship due to their commitments to the home and host organisation.Furthermore, during the repatriation phase the assignee goes through the situation of securing a new position in the home location providing high levels of insecurity similar to the situation faced by temporary workers.The findings of Torka's (2004) research highlight the organisations attempt to match HRM policies and practices with the aspirations of atypical workers.As Torka (2004: 341) states 'In general, only if HRM meets the expectations of employees can employers expect their workers to show commitment.'She goes on to add that 'all workers want managers and supervisors to listen to their views.HRM must provide space for each individual and use a range of appropriate approaches since preferences do differ among workers'.Within international assignments it is generally accepted that all expatriates will undertake an assignment that will be administered under a particular HR policy such as short term, long term business trip etc. (Howe-Walsh, 2010;Brookfield GMAC, 2012).However, what is less clear is the extent to which the delivery of HR practices are perceived by the expatriate and to what extent there is flexibility towards practices adopted during repatriation.For example, family support may be more apposite for a returning assignee with a child returning to undertake examinations at school in contrast to a returning assignee with a child of nursery age.Allen and Meyer (1991) believe that work experiences dictate affective commitment.Torka and Schyns (2010) link this to operational HRM involving HR practices in terms of the job content, physical and social working conditions such as support from colleagues and line managers as well as training and development, reward and employee involvement.They suggest that work experiences such as HR practices serve as antecedents for both affective and normative commitment.However, there is little research to develop the link between HR practices and policies and commitment within repatriation.
Within the literature of HR practices and polices there remains much debate surrounding the dominant perspectives of 'best practice' and 'best fit'.The former refers to a set of HR policies that arguably improves performance in all organisations.In contrast, the best fit approach argues that if HR policies are consistently adopted with the business strategy then performance will improve.Kinnie et al.'s (2005) studied three groups: managers, professionals and workers and found that each group demonstrated preferences for differing HR practices.Managers' commitment was associated with four HR practices.The most prevalent was linked to career opportunities with rewards and recognition, involvement, communication while work life balance was secondary in importance.Professionals also valued these practices but their main emphasis was on performance appraisal.Workers, on the other hand, valued rewards and recognition.The conclusions drawn from the study were that different HR practices are more relevant to different employee groups, thus, affecting their commitment to the organisation.Consequently, an employee's satisfaction is linked to different HR practices.This causes challenges for HR strategy to deliver a solution that fits all requirements.Whilst the argument to maintain a consistent HR approach is mandatory with regard to legal implications as well as from an ethical view, it becomes less clear as to whether this approach would work for all HR practices.Indeed, previous research has highlighted that HR are often viewed by expatriates as disorganised and deficient in supporting their assignment needs (Jassawalla & Sashittal, 2009).
With the increased delegation of HR practices to line managers/supervisor (Kinnie, et al, 2005;Perry & Kulik, 2008;Torka & Schyns, 2010;Shaffer et al, 2012) and the high importance of HR practices in the expatriation process, arguably the impact of the supervisor is more prevalent for international assignees compared to domestic employees.The supervisor is likely to be the first point of contact during the repatriation process.Who undertakes the repatriation negotiations lacks clarity within the literature.Even if it is understood that this is up to the HR function then an understanding of whether this is managed by home or host HR or even jointly needs to be clarified.Research undertaken by Shaffer, Kraimer, Chen and Bolino (2012) highlights that short term assignments are likely to be managed entirely by line managers whilst long term assignments are more likely to be the responsibility of the HR function.How the process of repatriation is initiated and who initiates it plays a significant part in the overall process.The lines of communication between home and host cannot be underestimated as the international assignee may require a concerted effort by both to ensure the HR policy runs as intended.How the repatriate experiences the repatriation process will impact upon their view of the organisation and the likelihood that the individual will stay (Hyder & Lovblad, 2007).Nevertheless, HR practices are valued differently between different groups of employees.Thus the response to HR policies and practices may vary from repatriate to repatriate and equally may vary throughout the international assignment creating challenges in delivering HR practices to aid a successful repatriation.
Proposition 2 2a) HR practices that are perceived to be tailored to the individual assignee will enhance organisational commitment; 2b) A single point of contact for the assignee and their family administering HR practices during the assignment will increase the level of commitment of an assignee.

Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
The SCCT was developed by Lent, Brown and Hackett (1994) based on the work introduced by Bandura (1977: 194) that attempts to determine human behaviour as an interaction between personal factors.The influences of behaviour, individual, cognitive and environmental factors determine how people interact and learn from each other.Bandura (1977) explores the idea that the greater a person's perceived self-efficacy the more likely he or she is to exert greater effort to overcome perceived potential obstacles.SCCT furthers the idea that career interests develop on the basis of person factors, such as self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is the belief or confidence that one can perform a role.A confident individual will exert significant effort to overcome obstacles and succeed even when faced by challenges.The more successful the individual is at overcoming challenges the more likely they are to undertake challenges in the future.In turn this will increase the individuals' self-efficacy and increase the likelihood that they will pursue similar tasks or take on further challenges in the future.Thus, repatriates who have previously experienced an international assignment regardless of whether the experience was poor will be more likely to accept another assignment and overcome the challenges of a negative experience.Tharenou (2003) postulates that taking constructs from Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) helps to explain why people are drawn to different careers, make varied choices and pursue different educational and occupational goals, thus drawing attention to person factors contributing to the success of international assignments.Therefore, exploring the receptiveness of a potential assignee during the other phases of an assignment such as repatriation should be explored.Drawing on SCCT, Tharenou (2002: 131) discusses the merits of considering person factors that explain an individual's receptiveness to an international career.Personal factors include international ability, attitude to relocating overseas and personal agency in terms of self-efficacy (the belief that you can influence your own thoughts and behaviour) and expectations of the likely outcome of an assignment.
SCCT approach focuses on the development of the career and how it is shaped (Lent et al 1994).In addition to the personal constructs, the perceived environment is also considered important.What opportunities are likely for the individual; new work opportunities?What support can they expect; HR support, sponsorship?What are the barriers (such as family issues) that may impact upon the receptiveness of an international assignment?Arguably all of these questions should be answered prior to undertaking an international assignment.Tharenou (2002) contends that by providing employees with supportive environments, makes them more likely to undertake an assignment.The perceived environment is a combination of: opportunities such as the organisation's focus; support from sources such as Human Resources (HR); and barriers such as family and disruption to routines.In addition, the expatriate's technical competence, attitudes to relocating as well as their perception of the likely outcomes should be considered.Tharenou suggests that the size of the organisation in terms of their international standing does not appear to effect willingness of the assignee to accept an assignment.However, HR activities such as international policies, cross-cultural training and accommodation increase receptivity to an assignment.Ultimately, the interaction between person factors and perceived environment affects their receptiveness to working abroad.
The research undertaken by Tharenou (2003) explores the receptivity of young graduates entering their first employment.Her longitudinal study was designed to examine how receptivity to international work develops over a period of time.Areas examined included self-efficacy for international work.She assumed and found that the greater the personal self-efficacy the more willing an individual was to undertake the assignment in developing countries but not in developed countries.In addition, the benefit of the assignment in terms of future career prospects for the individual was seen to be positively influenced where an individual perceives enhanced career development.
The assignee's individual circumstances with regard to a partner and family were found to influence the receptivity to an assignment.Indeed, Tharenou (2002) highlights that family influence is the greatest barrier to both male and female young employees in working abroad.Although one might expect that family considerations are of paramount concern including education for children, partner support for career, accommodation etc.The actual support offered to assignees is under researched.Indeed Shaffer et al (2001: 117) state 'Perceptions of organisational support and both work interference with family (WIF) and family interference with work (FIW) conflict and assignment withdrawal cognitions can be amplified by the expatriate's levels of commitment to either his or her organisation or family'.The influence of the family and in particular the partner of the expatriate is highlighted by Larson's (2006) study.He suggests that organisations need to take care of the trailing partner and family if they want further assignments to be undertaken.Tharenou (2003) highlighted that a combination of factors influence the development of receptivity to working abroad.Equally, in the repatriation phase of an assignment similar factors will influence the receptivity towards repatriation, none more so than home barriers and work environment opportunities.Some interesting results from research Tharenou's study indicate that HR support might be dependent upon need, suggesting that a broad brush approach to HR activities may not be appropriate.Tailoring HR activities to the individual needs of the repatriate requires further consideration.The conclusions drawn regarding family concerns are worthy of future study, as this was found to be the greatest barrier to receptivity towards an assignment.During the repatriation phase family concerns remain an issue.Proposition 3a) Positive receptivity towards an international assignment and career prospects will be reflected by positive receptivity towards repatriation.3b) Positive family receptivity towards and international assignment will be reflected by positive receptivity towards repatriation.

Repatriation and SCCT
How then can we move towards a greater understanding of successful repatriation?Further research to gain an understanding of how the HR policies are implemented into HR practices will be fundamental in gaining additional insights into the actual experiences of repatriates.

Discussion, Limitations, Future Research and Conclusions
From the three theories reviewed, this paper explores how a combination of theories may well explain the poor retention rates of repatriates than previous single theory research.Firstly, URT was discussed; reducing uncertainty during repatriation to consider the effect of HRM.Secondly, CT was reviewed as a means to investigate turnover intentions critical during the repatriation phase of an assignment.The influence of HRM in terms of HR policy and resulting HR practices to strengthen commitment to the organisation was considered.Extending SCCT the paper introduces the receptivity of repatriates to navigate their career and acknowledges the role of HR practices to support career progression.
The literature highlighted repatriates who experienced difficulties in adjustment during their assignment are likely to need additional organisational support upon their return.The implication is that HR interventions should be tailored to consider the repatriates previous adjustment.Identifying a new job in the home organisation requires early consideration prior to repatriation in order to alleviate unnecessary uncertainty.Thus HR planning of potential new roles within the home location requires pro-activity on the part of HR, line managers and the repatriate.Moreover the impact of undertaking an assignment upon the individual's career requires clarity.This opens the debate as to how the repatriate's performance has been managed whilst on assignment.The issues experienced by the repatriate are further compounded by differing expectations between the assignee and the organisation (Chi and Chen, 2007).This might extend to non-work issues such as job assistance for the returning partner (Paik, Segaud & Malinowski, 2002).These different expectations can influence the repatriate's commitment to the organisation he/she returns to and lead to resignation (Stahl, Chua, Caliguri, Cerdin and Taniguchi, 2009).
The first propositions argue that communication must encompass home and host HR as well as line management in order to reduce uncertainty and contribute towards successful repatriation.Furthermore if the communication is extended to include the partner and family arguably uncertainty is reduced benefiting the family and repatriate.Currently there is a lack of research to explore communication beyond the repatriate.If the assignee and their family have positive experiences during the early stages of the international assignment they are more likely to have a positive approach towards repatriation which in turn will affect turnover intentions.The second propositions suggest that HR practices perceived to be relevant to the individual assignee will enhance organisational commitment.Repatriate commitment towards the organisation and therefore impact upon turnover intentions requires further development in order to determine how far commitment is affected by HR policy and practice.Arguably providing a generic range of HR activities will adversely affect commitment.Repatriation experiences, including the experience of the family, will affect turnover intentions.Paik et al (2002) argue that the home office should deliver the repatriation activities.Therefore the issue of who delivers the HR practices will affect the repatriation experiences.The final propositions extend the discussion of receptivity towards repatriation and career progression as well as considering the influence of family.The challenge to the organisation is to adopt and deliver a range of HR activities that support the repatriate and their family to improve the repatriation experience.Arguably the HR activities must align with the organisations overall strategy in order to be effective.
In this paper, I have explored three theories to develop organisational interventions that can aid successful repatriation.Whilst this paper is entirely theoretical and no empirical research has been conducted the propositions offered maybe generalizable to larger organisations with an established expatriate population and HR department.The HR activities are equally applicable to small to medium enterprises although it is acknowledged that smaller organisations may conduct their HR activities through their line managers.As the number of employees undertaking an assignment continues to increase in line with increased globalisation the issue of repatriate retention remains prevalent.
Future research of the actual experiences of the repatriation process in terms of HR practices and HR policies experienced by the repatriate and their family will provide a greater insight into HR interventions reducing uncertainty for the repatriate and the influence upon retention.In addition further research is required to explore commitment to the organisation upon repatriation as well as developing a greater awareness of the link with receptiveness towards repatriation.The propositions offered provide the impetus to research the actual HR practices and HR policies experienced by repatriates to review how a combination of theories can further the research agenda.Future research is required to test the propositions presented to develop a greater understanding of the influence of HRM upon repatriates in differing sized organisations as well as varying industries.