Education in Togo : From Its Creation until the Period of Socio-Political and Economic Crisis of 1990

In order to study in long-term the impact of the socio-political and economic crisis on the public policy of Togolese educational system, this article tries to relate the history of Togolese education since its creation until the beginning of the period of the socio-political and economic crisis of 1990. Being given that one of the primordial objectives of the Togolese state is reached at the universal primary school education by 2015. Thus, this study will be focused more on the primary education. Therefore the study proposes to explore the functioning of the Togolese educational system in order to better understand its strengths and weaknesses, to identify present sources of inefficiencies and suggest possible ways to reduce them.


Introduction
Until the end of the year 1950, development was conceived through a linear vision based on economic performance (A.Smith cited by Bousquet, 1950).The human being was considered as a means of production or a component of fixed capital, and according to several classical authors, it was simply a beneficiary of growth product.
Education is one of the most powerful instruments known for reducing poverty and inequality and for laying the basis for sustained economic growth.It is the fundamental for the construction of a dynamic society.For individuals and for nations, education is the key to creating, applying, and spreading knowledge.
Education is certainly the biggest investments any individual or society can make since they generate considerable and multifaceted economic and social benefits.Usually, a more educated person has access to better jobs and earns a higher income than one who is less educated.More educated societies have enjoyed a higher level of development.
Education is an action exerted on others to develop their physical, intellectual and moral faculty, like its character.It is through education that society shared the values it privilege, that is its culture and knowledge.Education depends on what characterizes a society.It also depends on the epochs and localities.
Education and particularly primary education, aims to prepare the child for life, to provide a first level of general formation, physical, civic, moral, intellectual and social.It must prepare the child to: integrate usefully in society and to pursue further studies.Thus, at the end of primary education, the child should be able to acquire a basic education that is to know how to write, read, calculate, speak and understand foreign language; behaviors and attitudes that reflect an awakening developed of intellectual, moral, social and physical faculty.
For the child, a good education is the great opportunity of a lifetime.Its development, its temporal and eternal happiness, the moral and spiritual value and its success depends almost entirely.
At the family level, a good education, reward and delight family members.It also prepares the individual to later find a home happy, by providing principles, virtues, skills that will ensure marital harmony, peace, solidarity, love of work that he attaches it to his children.
For the society, good education is the guarantee of social progress, economic prosperity, cultural peoples, because generating science, conscience, honesty, a spirit of dedication, responsibility, solidarity.Good quality education provides individuals, family stability, the seriousness of professional life, fidelity to commitments, all elements essential to building a society where life is good.
The international community is now convinced that the sustainable development passes by education.Education for sustainable development represents the process which allows people to make decisions to save the long-term future of the economy; ecology and equity in all communities.Create capacity in order to develop a reflection oriented to the future constitute the principal mission of education.
Finally, the education is not automatically factor of progress; it depends to a large extent on the goals assigned to the education system.
Education is now increasingly the subject of concern for the Togolese government.On one hand, because young people see in education the means to satisfy their legitimate aspirations, their thirst for knowledge and desire for wellness.On the other hand, because the Togolese government itself considers that education is allowing them to overcome the underdevelopment that characterizes the economy of the country.
For this purpose, this article will try to explore the functioning of Togolese educational system in particularly primary school in order to better understand its strengths and weaknesses, to identify present sources of inefficiencies and suggest possible ways to reduce them.
This research paper has investigated the education in Togo: From its creation until the period of socio-political and economic crisis of 1990.It has made important contributions to the economy of educational literature.Overall, the findings of this research provide a much better understanding of public policy of Togolese educational system.It will serve as a source of information to international organizations, foreign donors who want to help the country to promote his education.
The unavailability of data could not allow a qualitative and quantitative comparative study of this education with the others countries.This article cannot provide the data of several previous years because of lack of organization and poor structure of Togolese educational administration.In this effect, this research paper was obliged to refer to data published by international organizations or foreign donors as a result of investigations conducted in the country in that direction.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows.Section 2 describes literature review on education of economy and the education system in general.Section 3 evokes the history of Togolese education system.Section 4 presents the description and analysis of the education situation in Togo.Section 5 presents the human and material resources of the primary education.Section 6 will speak about Primary school education financial resources.Finally; section 7 offers a brief summary and gives some concluding remarks.

Literature Review
From colonial times until today, most of the African countries are engaged in various development plans and did not attach the same importance to the problem of formation and accumulation of human capital.From the year 1960 certain economists (Schultz, Mincer, Becker, Pscharopoulos, Blaug etc…) estimated to have shown that education is the principal factor of the economic growth.Education is a teaching making it possible to ensure the formation and the development of a human being.It is the transmission of a just proportion of general culture in order to help each one to succeed in the life (Robert Dictionary, 2003).By affirming that: "education is both the seed and the flower of economic development", Harbison and Mayers (1964) quoted in a report of World Bank (WB) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) (2002, p. 6) show the existence of a retroactive effect between education and economic growth.For Henaff (2006) the poor countries; in particular the African countries would be locked up in a vicious circle.He considers that their poverty prevents from reducing the variation compared to the countries developed as regards development of education; of improvement of their economic situation and their place in the international economy.As for Vinokur (2006, p.95), he considers education in Africa as base of sustainable development and affirms that the rate of enrollment in the secondary is too high compared with the primary education (30%).He proposes with the African countries to reach the enrollment rates (respectively 100% in primary, secondary 5% and 3% in higher education) as it was in France in the early twentieth century.Clemens (2004) shows that, as the economic development in general, the increase of enrollment rates takes time, and there exists a remarkable uniformity in the growth of the rates of enrollment.Consequently, to make grow the enrollment rates in the underdeveloped countries beyond of a rhythm involves a dramatic fall of quality, an increase of the failure and, in the long term, the no soutenability of the education system.Barro (2000) notes that primary education is a required passage to lead to the secondary and higher education who could affect positively the economic growth.Thereafter, various international conferences have recommended exalting the education with the row of priority.This will meet in sub-Saharan Africa as in other underdeveloped regions of the World, against a weak political will and a strong demographic growth.It follows the material impossibility to realize this objective within the definite times.
In the wake of the underdeveloped countries, Duru-Bellat (2006) estimates that education is never a miraculous solution.Equilibrium must be found between the efforts realized in this field and other sectors.This author thinks that certain poor countries developed their educational system without succeed in emerge.For this purpose, it recommends to make sure that education is not a magic formula which disappoints the hopes.It also recommends vigilance on the educational policy at last not to maintain these countries poor in a vicious circle.If a country has a low level of human capital, it will have a low productivity, a low competitiveness, a low economic growth, a low level of resources to be invested in the formation of human resources, which leads in return to a low level of human capital.Because nothing indicates that the realization of Education for All (EPT) is a solution to solve the problem of poverty and economic development in the poor countries.
For Stiglitz (2002) the success cannot come only from the promotion of primary education, but also of the creation of a strong technological base which passes by a support for the advanced formation.Nvé-Ondo (2005), estimates that the future of Africa does not place simply on the struggle against the illiteracy or the reduction of poverty.The priority of financing and allowance of the resources in the education systems must be put on higher education, the Research and the Development (R & D).Other authors think that at the highest levels, the outputs of education are more important and better detectable, and that education has the most extremely impact on the long-term growth.Lin ( 2004), speaking about the Taiwanese example, affirms that the transformation of the structure of the economy of this country in the 80s is due to the support and the financing of the government for scientific and technological formation programs developed since 1979.Otherwise, in the 60s, the economy of this country was still using an intensive economic policy in labor of weak education.Certain analyses go further and show that the different academic formations (social sciences, economic sciences, technical and natural sciences and agronomic sciences) do not produce the same type of effect on the economic growth.Consequently, all the graduates of higher education do not bring the same type of contribution to the economic growth according to whether it is about the agricultural sector, services or industrial.Thus, because of the fact that each sector has different characteristics, specific needs for competences and physical capital for its growth.
The issue of teacher training and that of their wages are necessary for the success of any educational policy.Hanushek (2005) pointed out for example that the improvement of the quality of education is very difficult and is not inevitably related to the level of the expenditure.According to him, the most effective approach which generally appears through research is the improvement of the quality of the teachers, which leads to profits of competence of the students.However certain governments and their international partners estimate that the formation as well as the wages of the teachers must be dropped, sometimes in spite of their bad living condition, to reduce the educational expenditure.It is true that it does not seem to have perfect consensus on a single strategy as regards development based on education.For Ashton & Green (1996); Stiglitz (2002), the governments have an important role to assure in the definition and the choice of the strategy of financing of their education system.It does not belong to the International institutions to their dictated the economic policies.
The accelerated initiative of Education for All is commendable in this meaning, because it provides assistance, imposes obligations of action on the governments and gives a hope.Unfortunately, the rhythm and the performances which it requires do not seem realistic from the point of view of historical tendency of development of the educational systems observed around the world.As a result, many countries are not assured to achieve these objectives and especially to be able to hold them beyond the expiry planned for 2015.Although the positive influence of education on the development is almost unanimously accepted, certain educational policies seem more be dependent on certitude, according to certain authors.Thus for Bourdon (2006), this accelerated initiative of Education for All is related to the ideological reference dictate of "Washington consensus".For Duru-Bellat (2006), the economists of education base their conclusions more on the certitudes that on real demonstrations, when they affirm that education is a source of progress and growth.Wolf (2002) rejected the idea that it is sufficient to finance enormously education to produce the growth.Analyzing the economic situation of certain sub-Saharan countries, Easterly (2001) detects, a decline of the GDP per inhabitant in certain sub-Saharan countries between 1960 and 1990 whereas they knew all a boom of education.This puts a doubt on the contribution of education to the economic growth.
For the young, education is the means to bloom and acquire the necessary knowledge to be truly more productive.It is known that if the enrollment rate does not respond suitably to the needs of the economy, it can potentially represent a social, political danger and an economic inefficiency.In the poorest countries and within disadvantaged groups, the low level of education reflects most of the time the social insecurity, economic and policy which these populations undergo.However, in the developed countries there are spectacular reversals of the social demand for education.For example in France, where after a period of rapid growth of manpower in secondary and higher education, there is a stagnation or even an early dropout in higher education (Lange, 2006, p.170).Referring to the case of Tanzania, Clemens (2004) also cites problems, economics of this country, which led directly to one of the longest and largest decline in enrollment registered by UNESCO.In addition, it shows for examples that increasing fast enrollment generally follows a period of declining quality and decline of enrollment thereafter.
It is glaring that the financing of educational programs and activities therefore is a significant issue that merits consideration in both budgetary and overall developmental planning of any nation especially Togo as a developing country among others.

History of Togolese education system
Togolese educational system historic will be related around two parts:

Educational system pre independence period
In 1842, a Togolese nominated Akuété Zankli Lawson created the first school establishment, when he came back from England (Marie-France Lange, 1988).From 1885, the development of education was accentuated by the European colonizers who arrived in the country.At its creation, many Togolese families rejected it for the fact that they considered it as an element of destruction of ancestral values.From the late 19th to beginning 20th century, the first schools for the essential needs of the administration and economic exploitation of the colonies were created.The colonial administrations relied on traditional chief to govern.They required the prominent citizens and village chiefs to educate their children.
In 1885 at the Berlin Conference which delineates areas of European economic influence in Africa, the Togolese coast was officially attributed to Germany.As regards school forming, the Togo colonizes by the German set up schools run by Catholic and Protestant missions.About 1910, there were 163 evangelical educational and 196 Catholic establishments.Catholics had also established a training center for teachers.The Catholic and Protestant missionaries favored teaching in "indigenous language» to better convert the pagans to their religion.The missionaries never impose the German language.In 1913, only four public schools bringing together 341 students, comparative to 348 denominational schools that received more than 14 000.The population of Togo in this period was estimated at one million.After the start of the First World War, Franco-British military joint forced the Germans to capitulate in August 1914.Togo became a mandate from the Society of Nations (SDN), shared between the French (a part of territory given to the French called French Togo) and British (the other part of territory given to the British called British Togo).Before the share of Togo by SDN, the British developed Anglo-Saxon education system and encouraged the development of social values specific to each dominant ethnic group.The school systems enter into crisis because of the turmoil that resulted in the Franco-British occupation.From 1920, the French prohibited the English language in their occupied zone.They developed the school in the interior regions and imposed the French in 1922 as the official language of Togo and public education dispense only in this language.In 1920-1921, there were 5305 students retort between 6 public schools and 63 missionaries' schools.The school system is very low and poorly developed, and the expansion of opportunity between 1921-1927 resulted in the economic crisis of 1929.The French colonial tempts to limit the enrollment, and it should necessary wait until years after the war, when political conditions will change dramatically, so that the revival and expansion of education can see light of the day.The period (1946)(1947)(1948)(1949)(1950)(1951)(1952)(1953)(1954)(1955)(1956)(1957)(1958)(1959)(1960) saw the rapid development of primary school, secondary school emergence and consolidation of the training of elites.In this school system, inequality by sex, regions, the low internal efficiency of the system are always current characteristics that the policies of school of 1960-1990 years will not be able to modify.
The phase of the colonial education system in Togo was characterized as in other French-speaking countries, in order to recreate a new society edified on references to western civilization.

Educational system post independence period
On 27April 1960, Togo became independent.The post-colonial period in Togo will be marked by French presence, particularly in the domain of technical cooperation.In a large number of services (Example of the Ministry of Education), the national manager was assisted by a French technique adviser, sometimes reinforced by a team of cooperating.The system in place, focusing on the production of administrative support staff, appeared correspond to the needs of the new administration.Thus, emphasis was placed during the 1960 years, not a qualitative change in education, but by: -The sudden liberation of the demand for education; the clandestine schools, created on the initiative of people, multiply and are quickly recognized by the government; -expansion of primary education with a goal of universal primary education; -development of secondary school and thereafter the higher school.For that, the first university was founded a few years later in 1970 and the second in 2003.
Between 1960 and 1970, schooling in primary education in Togo increased from 26.29% to 44%.In May 1975, the education reform settle down like objective the primary schooling for all children in 1985.The enrollment rate in primary education increased until 1980 (72%) then decline until 1985 (52%) and rise slowly then.In 1990, fifteen years after the reform, it is 63% (Lange, 1989) compared to the 1970's, the situation is however better for the whole country and for each economic region; improvement have been done by government to develop the schools and demand for schooling by parents.The most remarkable trend among girls reflects a catching up, despite this increase, the femininity ratio remains low.The numbers of pupils in primary education,  are presented in the Table1 below.(Table 1)This expansion was making largely to the prejudice of education quality.Surcharge classrooms, under qualified teachers, insufficient infrastructure, equipment and materials were serious problems of Togolese education system since 1960.After independence, education in Togo was regarded as a national priority.However, the persistence of colonial model has accentuated the gap between school and the real country, reinforcing his inadequacy and his inability to respond the needs of the population.
From 1960 to 1975, efforts were made to increase enrollment in classes.The major conferences for education in the sub-region, invited the authorities of the countries to develop operational strategies.In 1975 the elaborated education reform was promulgated and New Schools were born.This reform defines three broad objectives: -Making democratic school through actions on the offer while giving equal opportunity for all; -Promote a viable school system graced at training and motivation of teachers (higher wages, housing allowance, and other ways of motivation), the provision of teaching materials and the adoption of an active and participatory pedagogy; -Promote a school adapted to the realities of the country and its orientation towards greater professionalism.
If education has registered a significant quantitative development, however it did not have the financial means necessary for its ambition.Further efforts for adaptation of content and professionalism remained very timid.These problems led the government to review in recent years his political education.

Description and analysis of the education situation in Togo
This section describes and presents an analytical manner the structure, functioning and effectiveness of Togolese primary school just before 1990.

Structure and functioning of education
The structure and functioning of the Togolese educational system remained almost unchanged from the school model inherited from the colonial French.The current Togolese school system is organized by the education reform of 1975.Thus the levels and types of formal education are still the following: -Primary education.This education includes: *The Pre-primary school.Children enter at the age of 2 years for a period of 3 years.Pre-primary education is not compulsory.
* The Primary school.Children enter at the age of 5 years for a period of 6 years.The certificate of graduation from primary education (CEPED) marks the end of primary school and provides access to college (junior secondary).
-Junior secondary education.This teaching is 4 years.The certificate of graduation from junior secondary (BEPC) marks the end of this teaching and allow students to access the secondary education.
-Secondary education.For this teaching, the students are admitted for a period of 3 years.At the end of the second year, the students sit for an examination called: School-leaving certificate part 1(BAC1).This certificate is required to access the class of terminal.At the end of terminal class, the School-leaving certificate part 2(BAC2) closing this level and allows access to higher education.
The college (junior secondary) and secondary education has two major streams: general or technical/ vocational education.
-Higher education.This level of education admits the students of secondary education who passed the school-leaving certificate part 2. This teaching concerns the studies in universities, specialized institutes of the government, university education abroad.The studies vary between 3 to 8 years.
The school year is officially divided in three quarters.In primary, college and secondary education, the three quarters totaled 40 weeks of teaching activities.At the higher education, academic year is divided into two semesters of 16 weeks each.
The technical and vocational education, undeveloped is divided between the college, secondary education, high school and university.It is one of the most affected by the dropout because of its budgetary restrictions.The training of primary and secondary teachers relieve of higher education.
In addition to these ministries of education and training, many government departments organize themselves the training of their future employees.

Administration of the primary education
In Togo, education is administered by three ministries: The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education and Literacy; the Ministry of Technical Education and Vocational Training; the Ministry of Higher Education and Research.Togo's educational system is highly centralized.The regions and districts educational are primarily as execution organ.The education of Togo is relayed by 6 regional directorates of education.Their responsibility is to manage primary and secondary education at regional level.The regional directorates of education are decentralized structures and are responsible for all matters relating to national education and research.They have authority over all establishments of all kinds and all degrees, over the inspectors and all other structures are dependent on the department of education and research.Some regional education centers are responsible for educational supervision of teachers from the three levels.In each district educational inspector exerts administrative and teaching examination on the teacher.In schools, the Director is the liaison between the inspector and his constant presence gives it a great authority as to the level of supervision and educational control.Figure 1 depicts the Organizational Chart of Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education.(Figure 1)

Human and material resources of the primary education
The present section analyzes the global situation of the teachers, the school infrastructures and the teaching materials necessary for education.

Human resources
The numbers of primary teachers followed an irregular evolution since 1960.These numbers doubled between 1973-1974and 1982-1983. Between 1983 (beginning of structural adjustment programs) and 1990, this number increase of 8.17%.
Table 2 below shows the evolution of number of primary teachers from 1978 to 1990.(Table 2) The failure of students has been very important in the Togolese educational system because of lack or bad training of these teachers.For instance, from 1980 to 1990 a failure rate of students in the primary turns around 36%. Today, these figures have dropped dramatically, but they always remain on a very high level with a proportion of 24% in the primary education.It is to be reminded that the high failure rates entail abandonments and slow down access to schooling.The reform of 1975 envisaged separately the democratization of primary school education, an improvement of quality through a more increased profitability of teaching.This profitability will depend on the professional qualification of the teachers, of adaptation of teaching materials and content of school textbooks in order to make teaching more relevant to learners.This profitability will make it possible to reduce the rate of failure and the abandonments in progress of cycle.The professional qualification of teachers has significantly deteriorated since 1980.The country's economic difficulties with reference to adoption by the government of structural adjustment programs in the middle of the years 1980 caused the temporary closure of schools of teacher training.The difficult work conditions of primary teachers were equipment, financial and moral order: Educational establishment dilapidate, extreme shortage of teaching materials, insufficient of teachers obliging them to develop strategies allowing facing overcrowded classrooms which sometimes involved several levels.

5.2Material resources
Persistent economic stagnation has caused discordance between the needs of the school system and the financial possibilities of government and households.To correct the effects of the economic situation and policy on education, the government has signed several agreements of credits with the World Bank, the African Bank of Development (BAD) and the French Cooperation institution.Several other countries and institutions provide assistance to finance educational equipments.In spite of these multiple efforts, the teaching equipment is quantitatively and qualitatively insufficient.The removal of boarding schools in Togo in the wake of the education reform of 1975 is justified by the savings measures and especially the establishment of educational institutions in most communities that needed it.The problem of the school buildings arises in rather serious terms.Indeed since the adoption of Structural Adjustment Programs, the government has built very few new establishments school.Thus, in 1990 we have 2483 primary schools and 11 346 classrooms in Togo.In absence of substantial efforts, the situation will be aggravating in the next years.
The education programs elaborated in response to the reform of education in 1975 constitute official education programs and presented a little innovator character compared to the programs inherited the colonial period.
Promotion rates, failure and abandonment allow evaluating the functioning of the school system.The Abandonment rates calculated during the period (1980)(1981)(1982)(1983)(1984)(1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990) rose to 10.2% in primary school education, and 19% in the college and 14.2% in the secondary.These average rates should not obscure very large differences between cycles.Indeed, if the abandonments rates are a little weaker at the beginning of the primary cycle (5.8 to 9.4% for the two first years), they rise to 20.1% for the last year of the primary education.

Primary school education financial resources
The educational systems in general and primary education in particular, are financed mainly by the government through public funds.The complementary resources are covered by external aid and at a certain extent by the financial contribution brought by the parents of students and the local communities.
The current expenditure of education appears essentially in the budget of the Ministry of the National Education.History of the financing of the school system remains linked to economic history of the country.From 1960 to 1973, the educational system, like the different sectors of economy, develops systematically without changes of structure intervening.In 1974, the spectacular rise of world rates of mineral resources causes the hopes of economic independence.The country considered releasing of the international constraints and decides to reform education from 1975.The success of this policy is incontestably owed to the effort of government, in the field of the infrastructures (construction of schools, colleges) and that of the teaching personnel.The budget of ministries of education rose from 9.4 billion francs CFA (19% of state budget) in 1977 to 20.71 billion CFA francs (22.4% of state budget) in 1990.However towards the end of the year 1970 and the beginning of the year 1980, the budget allocated by government to the education sector declined.This situation was explained by the budgetary restriction imposed in the state since 1979 because of the bad investments executed in the manufacturing sector.These investments had increased the debt of the state in such proportions that intervention of International Monetary Fund (IMF) becomes necessary.Thus, the economic austerity measures agreed will have a dramatic impact on education and other sectors of the country.The national compensation of the financing of the construction projects and equipment of the schools constituted the main part of the investment expenditures of government in the educational sector.If the government did not reduce significantly the share of its resources to the functioning budget allocated to the ministries of education, one however noted a reduction in the expenditure investment in education, what contributed to deteriorate the conditions for supply of education during the first years of implementation of Structural Adjustment Programs.The majority of the investment expenditure of the educational sector was financed like investment budget of the state from exterior.External aids to education consist of functioning aid and capital assistance for construction of buildings and purchase school equipment.
Until September 2008 in public primary education all parents of students pay school fees.Its amount varied according to the areas.Apart from paying school fees, the parents supported the expenses equipment of their children in particular for purchase of the school supplies and the books.In some areas the parents of students contribute towards payment of part-time teachers, buying furniture and constructing school buildings in addition to contributions from the government.

Conclusion
The history of education in Togo was successively linked to three types of colonization's (German, British and French) that marked the life of the country until its independence in 1960.The state has certainly favored primary education and made enormous efforts to develop the education system as a whole since independence.The economic and financial constraints do not allow ensuring the quality and efficiency of primary education.The structure and the programs of teaching had remained almost the same ones as with independence.The main factors which have a positive impact on acquisitions of the students did not exist in certain schools or were of very limited number.They are: Teachers, education advisers, inspectors of primary education, teaching materials such as the schoolbooks and the classrooms.In 1975 the education reform elaborated is promulgated and the New School was born.The objective of this reform was to improve the teaching services.The school was already with the drift on the eve of the World Conference on Education in Jomtien (Thailand) in 1990.Thus Togo should make enormous efforts to reach the universal primary school education by 2015.In 1990, these efforts finally led only to increase the capacity of the schools partly and to accommodate approximately 63% of children in age to go to school.As for reasons of dilapidation and inefficiency of the Togolese educational system which started in 1980, they are to be sought in: The instability of the socio-cultural framework; the demographic characteristics; the inefficiency of macro-economic policies.
The Togolese State not being able to disengage its educational mission completely, the efforts must be made by all the partners, to start with the State, but within the framework of a novel mode of organization of education system based on a relative autonomy.The management of primary school education should know a distribution of competences.The state would share with the local communities, regions, parents, No Government Organization (NGOs) and private individuals the responsibilities.The new management within the schools establishments would be centered in the fields of opening of a private school, of recruitment of teaching personnel and the maintenance of school buildings.The reorganization of the administration of education by the slant of decentralization and obvious devolution would support a system of initiative and would allow a true local management of school.To reach this objective the role of local authorities, the parents and the private individuals must be actually reinforced.

References
Adam Smith.(1937).An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nation, Canon Edition, Random House Inc.Source: General Direction of Educational Planning (DGPE, 1990)

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Organizational Chart of Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education Legend DRH: Human resources direction DAF: Financial direction DEPP: Direction of pre-primary and primary education DESIO: Direction of secondary education, information and vocational education DPPE: Direction of foresight, educational Planning and evaluation DEX.C: Examinations and competitions direction DIFOP: Direction of permanent formation LIMUSCO: Mutual school library

Table 2 .
Evolution of number of primary teachers from 1978 to 1990