Mathematics Achievement among Malaysian Students : What Can They Learn from Singapore ?

Malaysia was ranked 16 and 10 in mathematics based on the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) in 1999 and 2003, respectively while its neighbor, Singapore, used to be a part of Malaysia until 1965, was ranked first in both years. Hence, it is the aim of this study to investigate what makes Singaporean students better in mathematics performance compared to Malaysian students using TIMSS data. Factors examined in this analysis include characteristics of students, teachers and schools, educational aids and resources as well as students’ attitudes towards mathematics learning. It is hoped that the findings from this study will provide useful inputs to improve mathematics learning among Malaysian students.


Introduction
Numerous research have been undertaken to investigate trends in mathematics achievement and the factors influencing mathematics learning and performance (Ma and Klinger, 2000;Papanastasiou, 2000;Al Khateeb, 2001;Tsao, 2004;Mullis, Martin, Gonzalez and Chrostowski, 2004;House and Telese, 2008).For example, Ma and Klinger (2000) studied the factors of mathematics achievement which include students' gender, age, ethnicity, their family socioeconomic status and school characteristics.In Papanastasiou (2000), the effects of school, students' attitudes and beliefs in mathematics learning on students' performance were investigated.Mathematics beliefs and self-concept were also studied by House and Telese (2008) and Wang (2007) while Al Khateeb (2001) examined gender differences in mathematics achievement among high school students.
Both House and Telese (2008) and Tsao (2004) used data from the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) in their comparative analyses of mathematics achievement of students in the United States and Japan, and the United States and Taiwan, respectively.TIMSS data also showed that the eighth grade students from Singapore were ranked first in mathematics among participating countries while its neighbor, Malaysia was ranked 16 th and 10 th in 1999 and 2003 respectively on the same study (Mullis, Martin, Beaton, Gonzalez et al, 2000;Mullis et al, 2004).One begins to wonder as to why Singapore has done exceptionally well compared to Malaysia when the country was once part of Sultanate of Johor, Malaysia between 16 th and early 19 th centuries until it became an independent republic in 1965.Is it something about its students, teachers and/or school system that lead to Singapore's superiority over Malaysia in as far as mathematics performance is concerned?Thus it is the interest of this paper to examine the similarities and differences in education system, students, teachers, schools and other characteristics between the two countries in the hope to help Malaysia improve its performance in Mathematics globally.

Similarities and Differences between the Two Countries
Like other Asian countries, education systems in both countries are highly centralized and are managed or under the jurisdiction of Ministry of Education in each respective country.The admission age to the first year of primary schooling is six and primary education takes six years for normal students in both the countries (Table 1).Students in both countries are required to sit for the national examination before they could proceed to secondary education.In Malaysia, this examination is called Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR) or Primary School Assessment Examination and in Singapore, it is called the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE).
With an area of around 330 times bigger and a population of 6 times more than Singapore (Table 2), it is expected that the implementation of educational policies and plans, in Malaysia is not as easy as Singapore.Furthermore, Singapore enjoys lower infant mortality rate, longer life expectancy and higher human development index.With per capita income of almost seven times that of Malaysia, Singapore is the most developed nation in ASEAN.
Exceptionally bright students in Malaysia may have spent one year shorter in primary education because they could move from year 3 to year 5, skipping year 4 if they did well in the First Level Assessment examination or known as Penilaian Tahap Satu (PTS).However, this exam was removed in 2001.The promotion from grade 6 to 7 is automatic for students in Malaysia.Students who perform well in this examination have the opportunity of being offered a place in government funded boarding schools but due to limited places, priority has always been given to students from lower income families and those from the rural areas.In Malaysia, secondary education is divided into lower and upper secondary with a period of 3 and 2 years respectively.Upon completion of the lower secondary, students sit for a common examination called the Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR).Based on this examination, students may choose a combination of available subjects in the first year of upper secondary according to their interest.In the last year of upper secondary, students sit for Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM), Malaysian Certificate of Education, which is equivalent to the British Ordinary or O Levels.
On the other hand, Singapore students are placed in different secondary education tracks depending on their performance in PSLE.Students are divided into two categories: express and normal.Express is a four-year course leading up to a Singapore-Cambridge General certificate of Education Ordinary-level (O-level) examination.Normal is a four-year course leading up to a Normal-level examination with the possibility of a fifth year leading to an O-level.
Unlike Singapore, where English is the medium of instruction, Malaysia uses the national language (Bahasa Malaysia) as the main medium of instruction in all government schools except for international schools.Only in 2002, English language was made the medium of instruction for mathematics and science subjects in secondary schools for students starting grade 1 and grade 7 that year.Hence, the eighth grade students in Malaysia in this study still learning Mathematics in Bahasa Malaysia and therefore, the language of test used in this study is Bahasa Malaysia for Malaysia and English for Singapore.

Methodology
This paper uses TIMSS 2003 data with the hope that it would reveal important characteristics that could be used to improve mathematics learning and achievement among students in Malaysia.TIMSS is an educational research project conducted by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA).The variables used this analysis include characteristics of students, resources for learning, how they spend their time out of school, their self-confidence in learning mathematics and the value they place on mathematics, teacher and school characteristics in both countries.However, the study will not investigate on effect of the curriculum or content areas and instructional practices on mathematics achievement.
To include the variables mentioned above, we need to use all three questionnaires (students, teachers and schools) and responses used in TIMSS 2003.These questionnaires aim to obtain background information from students, teachers and schools.Since the number of variables involved in this study is tremendous, we just show those variables that have association with Mathematics achievement among Malaysian students.
The data consists of 150 schools and teachers as well as 5314 eighth grade students from Malaysia and 164 schools and teachers together with 6018 eighth grade students from Singapore.The average age of the sampled students of both the countries at the time of testing was 14.33 years.Mathematics achievement in this study is represented by the average of five plausible values.Almost 94 per cent of Singaporean students obtain a score above the international average whereas only 70 per cent of Malaysian students are in this category.This study will employ the t-test or ANOVA to relate each of these variables with mathematics achievement in these countries.The chi-square tests are used to investigate the differences in distribution of each variable between the two countries.

Mathematics Achievement
The distribution of mathematics scores shown in Table 3 clearly indicates how well students in Singapore have done in TIMSS 2003.Over 50 percent of them achieved more than the average score of 603 compared to Malaysian students (only 10 %).Expectedly the proportion of students in Singapore with achievements lower than the International average is very small (6%) compared to students in Malaysia (31%) even though the Malaysian average score is much higher (508).
Comparison of mathematics achievement between the two countries is presented in Table 4 indicating that Singapore's average scores is significantly higher than Malaysia's not only in terms of the overall performance but also in each of the five mathematics content areas.However, students in both countries exhibit the best and worst performance in the same content areas, Fraction and Geometry, respectively.

Background of Students
Only two variables are considered in this section, gender of the students and parents highest level of education.Both countries register significant gender differences with girls scoring higher than boys and achievement significantly increases with education level of the parents (Table 5).Although Singapore registers a higher proportion of boys (51%) compared to Malaysia (42%) (Table 6), their mean scores are higher than Malaysian girls.It also has higher proportion of parents with at least university education.

Educational Aids and Resources
Further analyses of the average mathematics achievement with respect to educational aids and resources, both countries register that achievement significantly increases with ownership of books and study desk, computer ownership and usage (Table 7).
From Table 8, there is no doubt that students in Singapore are well ahead of their counterparts in Malaysia especially with regard to computer ownership and usage.More than 94 percent of Singapore students own a computer and 78 percent of them use computer both at home and school compared to only 56 percent and 25 percent, respectively, of the Malaysian students.

Students Attitudes
The responses for the characteristics in this category are based on students' perception and may be influenced by the culture of modesty or high expectation in the society and therefore are less reliable.With that in mind, it was found that achievement significantly increases with students' aspiration, perception of being safe in school, self-confidence in learning mathematics and time spent on mathematics homework (Table 9).Students in Malaysia reported a higher proportion of them inspire to finish university, feel being safe in school, value mathematics and confidence in learning mathematics (Table 10).Although the distributions of time spent on mathematics homework are different between the two countries, it is very difficult to draw conclusion about the differences of the distributions of the two countries.

Teachers Characteristics
Examining mathematics achievement across teacher's characteristics in Table 11 reveals interesting results.In Malaysia, students with female teachers achieve significantly higher scores than those with male teachers.Teacher's participation in the development of mathematics content as well as mathematics curriculum have significant positive impact on students' performance and that average achievement significantly increases with increasing index of teacher's reports on teaching mathematics classes with few or no limitation on instruction due to student factors.In contrast none of the teacher -related factors matter in as far as mathematics achievement is concerned among students in Singapore.Further analysis of the distribution of teacher's characteristics between the two countries using Chi-square tests in Table 12 shows no significant difference in the distribution of gender of teachers, teachers' participation in development of Math content and curriculum between the two countries.The proportion of high index of having classes with few or no limitation on instruction due to student factor is higher among Malaysian students.

School Characteristics
School related characteristics are found to have significant influence on students' mathematics scores in both countries as shown in Table 13 and that the distribution of students coming from economically disadvantaged homes, index of principal's perception of school climate and index of good school and class attendance differ significantly between Malaysia and Singapore (Table 13).Among Singaporean students mathematics achievement significantly increase with increasing level of socio-economic status, index of principal's perception of school climate and index of good school and class attendance.Similar results are found among students in Malaysia except for the GSCA index where students with low GSCA index register a higher average achievement in mathematics than those with medium GSCA index.Table 14 shows that higher proportion of Malaysian students coming from economically disadvantage homes.However, Singapore has higher proportion of index of good school and class attendance as compared to Malaysia.

Conclusion and Implications
This study reveals several significant and important findings with respect to mathematics achievement among eighth grade students in Singapore and Malaysia.There are significant differences in the overall average achievement as well as in all the five mathematics content areas between the two countries with Singaporean students exhibiting superiority over Malaysian students.Although Malaysia has the advantage of having more inspired students to finish university, feel safe in school and value mathematics more, these advantages do not compensate the socioeconomic advantage of Singapore students.Furthermore, student aspiration, feeling safe in school and student valuing mathematics are based on students' perception and may not be reliable.
The data also shows that except for gender of teacher, participation of teacher in the development of mathematics content and curriculum, the distribution of the other variables in consideration differ significantly between the two countries and with the exception of these three teacher related factors, all the other factors contribute significantly to the differences in mathematics achievement among students in Singapore.However, unlike Singapore differences in achievement among Malaysian students are found to be significant across student, teacher and school characteristics.It is clear from this study that mathematics teachers matter in Malaysia while they do not in Singapore and since there are no significant differences between the two countries in as far as teacher related characteristics are concerned, the substantial difference in mathematics achievement could then be due to other factors.Firstly, it is important to note that Singapore sample of students in TIMSS 2003 are more homogeneous in terms of location of schools that are all urban based compared to Malaysian sample.The homogeneity could also be due to the fact that there is some form of screening of students in Grade 6 going to Grade 7 being practiced in Singapore while promotion to secondary schooling in Malaysia is automatic.
Another big difference between students in the two countries is with regard to study aid, especially ownership of books and computers as well as computer usage.There is variation in digital divide between urban and rural schools and between developed and less developed states in Malaysia while this does not exist in Singapore.And lastly, because of its size, the implementation of academic strategies and activities can be carried out easily in Singapore as compared to Malaysia.
One aspect that is not covered in this study that could have significant impact on mathematics achievement is instructional strategies although the indexes of time students spend on mathematics homework and levels of computer usage do reflect some aspect of it.Singapore is of course far well ahead of Malaysia in this respect.
We should also note that this study does not include the differences of curriculum or contents of mathematics taught which may affect mathematics achievement in both countries.Furthermore, this study is using unvaried analysis and just investigates the role of one characteristic without taking into the account the effect of the other characteristics.However, this shortfall does not deny the fact that the findings in this study give an important contribution to understanding mathematics performance in Malaysia.