Development of Student Citizenship Indicators in Northeast of Thailand

The objectives of this research were to develop student citizenship indicators and to validate the consistency between models of student t citizenship indicators and the empirical data. 470 samples were drawn from the population of teachers of schools under the Office of the Basic Education Commission in Yasothon Province in the Northeast of Thailand. The research instrument for data collection was a constructed questionnaire. Basic statistical data was analyzed through a statistical package whereas first and second-order confirmatory factor analyses were done through LISREL 8.53 . The results were as follows . 1 . Student citizenship with key indicators from the confirmatory factor analyses was totally consisted of 6 models, 20 factors, and 54 indicators. The 6 models are 1) Model of responsibility with 4 factors and 12 indicators, 2) Model of equality with 3 factors and 7 indicators, 3) Model of respect for the rights of others with 3 factors and 8 indicators, 4) Model of public mind with 4 factors and 11 indicators, 5) Model of knowing one’s roles and responsibilities with 3 factors and 8 indicators, and 6) Model of rights and freedom with 3 factors and 8 indicators. 2 . These 6 models of the student citizenship indicators were consistent with the empirical data.


Basic Education in Thailand
The development of a country aims at the whole society and human resources. Educational institutions as part of the society are directly responsible for providing education for the people and act as the main unit of the education system. Education is a basic need of the society that has resulted in a collaborative school system with common responsibilities and goals. Schools are intended to accomplish the educational goals of the society. For this reason, schools have to change according to the society, acting as social leaders and maintaining social conditions as well as developing a prosperous society (Sakunsatapat, 2010).
The education of Thailand emphasizes on developing people to meet the basic desirable characteristics of the two standards (Thailand and the UNESCO's World Declaration on Education for All). That is the provision of education to make smart, good, and happy people. In the 21st century (Agenda, 21), all the countries in the world develop and implement educational curricula that enable students to learn to know, learn to do, learn to be (as desirable characteristics of national citizens), and learn to live together (as desirable characteristics of global citizens) (Standard 1 Desirable characteristics of Thai people as both national and global citizens) (UNESCO, 1990).
Office of the Basic Education Commission, which is the main organization for the provision of basic education, developed the Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (2008). The vision of this Basic Education Core Curriculum states that the Basic Education Core Curriculum is aimed at enhancing capacity of all learners, who constitute the major force of the country, so as to attain balanced development in all respects-physical strength, knowledge and morality. They will fully realize their commitment and responsibilities as Thai citizens as well as members of the world community. In response to this clearly specified vision, educational institutions should take it into action, aiming to provide knowledge and understanding to social studies teachers who are responsible for teaching subjects in the Social Studies, Religion and Culture Department. These matters are directly related to the development of citizenship. This teaching and learning management is to create the global citizenship characteristics for students. In so doing, the scope, content, and substance of citizenship should be defined and the Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (2008) in relation to the citizenship characteristics development should be particularly analyzed. The results of this analysis may lead to the school curriculum preparation, organizing teaching and learning programs that emphasize on both classroom and non-classroom activities to develop citizenship characteristics for students. It may also benefit the preparation of teaching and learning materials and resources as well as the measurement and evaluation of student citizenship characteristics (Ministry of Education, 2008). Citizenship development is necessary for the Thai society nowadays because academic advancement affects socio-economic changes. Young people are the future of the nation should have knowledge, morality, ethics, and desirable values in accordance with the democratic principles (Bureekul, Sompong, & Nakatok, 2021).

Definitions of Citizenship
According to the evidence of Sparta, a prominent city-state in ancient Greece, the views of the people as a warrior tribe on good citizenship were that they must have courage and readiness to fight in the battlefield to protect the nation. Likewise, Athens viewed good citizens as those who participated in community and state activities. This past evidence showed that characteristics of good citizenship have varied from era to era. Common characteristics of good citizenship emphasize on love and sacrifice for the nation or duties according to the regime of that country. Therefore, good citizenship is a desirable quality that every society requires. The society with members of desirable citizenship and responsibility for assigned duties will certainly form a peaceful society (Hoskins, 2006).
For "citizens," it has been widely defined by scholars. For example, the definition of citizens under democracy given by the Education Council, the Ministry of Education, is membership of an independent and self-reliant society. Citizens in such a society exercise their rights and liberty together with the social responsibility, respect the rights and freedom of others, respect differences among themselves, and respect the principles of equality and other rules. They must not solve problems by depending on violence. Citizenship also means an awareness of being part of the society. Citizens share the social responsibility, hold a public mind, and become eager to take responsibilities or drive the society forward as well as solve social problems at all levels ranging from families, communities to the country, ASEAN, and the world. Marshall (1963) defined citizenship as the full membership of a community. Rights of community members must be developed under the community/state. Such rights included civil rights, political rights, and social rights. Civil rights should be developed first. It can be broadly said that these rights are necessary for the liberty of persons, which includes freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, freedom of movement, rights of equality, rights of personal properties, rights to enter into a contract, etc. Therefore, civil rights are rights expressed in the civil society. Civil rights exist on the basis of the government's limited powers in which the government respects the individual liberty. The citizenship rights of each society are determined by the governing authority or members of that society.
Citizenship modeled on the concept of Marshall (1973) has three forms of civil rights as follows: 1) Civil rights are legal rights of persons, freedom to choose to live, equality, and fairness.
2) Political rights are rights to participate in elections and opinions on the government.
3) Social rights are rights related to economy, welfare, security, medical care, care for the termination of employment, or minimum wages, which the state has to provide. Birzea (2000) defined "citizens" into two dimensions; 1) citizens are concerned with status and roles, and 2) justice and equality of rights. "Citizens" are members of an independent and self-reliant society. Citizens in such a society exercise their rights and liberty together with social responsibility, respect the rights and freedom of others, respect differences among themselves, and respect the principles of equality and other rules. They must not solve problems by depending on violence. Citizenship also means an awareness of being part of the society. Citizens share the social responsibility, hold a public mind, and become eager to take responsibilities or drive the society forward as well as solve social problems at all levels ranging from families, communities to the country, ASEAN, and the world. Turner (1993) proposed citizenship as a dimension of behavioral patterns of members of the society. Citizenship is a legal practice. The socio-economic culture indicates that human beings are competent members of the society. Membership leads to the emergence of management processes related to eligibility, entitlements, obligations, and immunities within the political community. Citizenship also includes a cultural or social ies.ccsenet.org International Education Studies Vol. 15, No. 5;2022 dimension that supports citizens' abilities and opportunities for full social participation through socialization. Various social institutions or schools can help create the values necessary for youth citizenship. Faulks (2000) added that citizenship is a state of membership in a society that comes with rights, duties, and obligations that imply equal justice and independence in self-government. Each citizen needs a relationship with one another.
Enslin (2000)'s citizenship includes five elements; 1) membership of the community, 2) participation in solving problems within the community, 3) respect for different opinions, 4) good understandings of politics and laws, and 5) positive attitudes towards politics. Hoskins (2006) stated that citizenship consists of 5 characteristics; 1) roles and duties in both community and politics, 2) respect for the laws, 3) respect for equality, 4) honesty and integrity, and 5) adherence to ethics.
Westheimer and Kahne (2004) described 3 aspects of good citizenship as follows.
1) Personal responsibility-Take responsibility for the community, work honestly, pay taxes, obey laws, separate waste, donate blood, and volunteer during times of crisis.
2) Participation as citizenship-Have membership of the community and endeavors to develop it, care for the community by serving the needs of people, support economic development or environmental protection, have knowledge of how the state works, and apply strategies in order to achieve work goals.
3) Consciousness of social justice-Assess the social, political, and economic structures critically for a deeper understanding of the problems. This aspect also investigates unfairness in the society, realizes social movements and solutions to make a change. In summary, encouraging others to act as good citizens in a democratic way is an awareness a person should have in order to complete democracy.

Characteristics of Citizenship
The Ministry of Education (2008) states that "citizenship" is consisted of 6 characteristics as follows.
1) Liberty and independence-never be subject to the dominance of the patronage system against private thoughts, actions, and decisions.
2) Respect for the rights of others-no infringing upon others' rights and liberty of dwelling, movement and communication, religion, academic freedom, and peaceful assembly.
3) Respect for differences-possess skills to listen to and accept different opinions from others, and accept various traditions and cultures. 4) Respect for equality-respect for the human dignity and equality of others, regard people as horizontal relationship (not vertical relationship) regardless of whether they are of different skin colors, races, religions, or birthplaces.

5)
Respect for rules and laws-use rules or laws to solve problems without violence, accept consequences of breaking laws, uphold principles of justice, and provide fairness for all parties in society.
6) Social responsibility-be aware of taking part of the society, be eager to take responsibility and participate in solving social problems, and live a valuable life for both the local society and the world society.
To have good citizens, each society specifies sets of desirable characteristics of citizenship it needs. Basically, members of the society should have general characteristics of good citizenship such as diligent, patient, honesty, economical, accountable, rational, generous, and compassionate. They have to pay attention to the importance of the public common interests. Moreover, members of the society should have specific characteristics required by their society such as citizens with virtue to use knowledge and pay respect and honor to the national core institutions.

Synthesis of Citizenship Components
As aforementioned, in this article, student citizenship is based on the synthesis of components from the previous concepts, theories, and studies of Turner (1993) 1) Responsibility 1. obligation to perform duties, 2.responsibility for assignments, 3.commitment to perform duties, 4. acceptance of both good and bad results from work done, 5. efforts to improve work both for oneself and the public, and 6. determination to work to achieve its goals

Population and Samples
The population of this research was 4,047 teachers of the schools under the jurisdiction of the Office of the Basic Education Commission in Yasothon Province.
The sample group was consisted of 470 teachers teaching at the schools under the jurisdiction of the Office of the Basic Education Commission in Yasothon Province. This sample size conformed to the sample size determination proposed by Yamane (1967). The sample was drawn through stratified sampling according to school sizes.

Research Instrument
The research instrument was a questionnaire with 2 parts. The process of constructing the questionnaire is as follows.
1) Principles, concepts, and theories from textbooks and academic papers related to the development of student citizenship indicators were studied to set a conceptual framework for the research. Next, the questionnaire was constructed including these 2 parts.
Part 1 Status of respondents: This part was in the form of a checklist collecting genders, age, educational background, work positions, and work experience.
Part 2 Student citizenship indicators: This part was in the form of 5-point rating scale (Likert, 1967) consisting of 123 items. The respondents were asked to rate the scale of each statement concerning student citizenship indicators. The 5 scales were highest, high, moderate, low, and lowest.
2) After the questionnaire was drafted, it was validated by 5 experts. The content validity was analyzed. The Item-Objective Congruence (IOC) of the whole draft ranged between 0.60 -1.00. The experts gave some advice for further improvement of the drafted questionnaire.
3) After the questionnaire was fully improved from the expert analysis, it was tried out among non-samples selected from schools in different districts. The questionnaire copies returned from the non-samples were analyzed for reliabilities with Cronbach's alpha coefficient. The reliability of the whole questionnaire was 0.970. The questionnaire was revised according to the try-out results before collecting the empirical data from the actual samples.

Data Collection
470 copies of the questionnaire and of the cover letter were distributed to the samples. The data was collected on site at the schools of the samples under the jurisdiction of the Office of the Basic Education Commission in Yasothon Province. The data collection took place between October and November 2019.

Data Analysis
1) The data was analyzed with basic descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, kurtosis, and skewness to explain the data distribution. The correlation coefficient was analyzed for the matrix suitability and correlation between variables. KMO and Bartlett's test of sphericity were also analyzed.
2) The first order confirmatory factor was analyzed to examine the developed models. The second order confirmatory factor was analyzed to verify the construct validity. The analysis was conducted through statistical package software. The consistency between the developed models of student citizenship indicators and the empirical data collected from the samples was tested with the following statistics; Chi-square (p-value> 0.05), Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) (p-value> 0.90), Root Mean Square Residual Index (RMR), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) (p-value ≤0.80). The results of the test were used to select indicators with construct validity of Factor Loading equal to or greater than 0.30 and the appropriateness mean equal to or greater than 3.50.

Results and Discussions
In this part of the article, the results of the research are presented and then discussed with previous studies.
1) The synthesized student citizenship indicators were composed of 6 core components as shown in Table 1.  Table 1 shows that the overall developed student citizenship based on the synthesis have has a high level of suitability ( This finding was consistent with the concept and research by (Poobangdao, Srivichai, Nantapetch, & Bousiri, 2019) who studied a process of learning management to create citizenship consciousness of secondary school students. That research found 6 aspects of citizenship consciousness that should be created for students including 1) independence and self-reliance, 2) respect for the rights of others, 3) respect for differences and acceptance of opinions, 4) respect for principles of equality and human dignity, 5) respect for rules and laws, and 6) responsibility for the society.
This finding in the research was additionally in line with citizenship proposed by Suntonanantachai et al (2019) who studied duties of citizens and the strengthening of rights and liberty towards citizenship according to the Constitution of the Kingdom of Thailand B.E. 2560 (2017). It showed that the framework of citizenship includes self-reliance, respect for principles of equality, respect for differences, respect for the rights of others, respect for rules, and responsibility for the society and the public.
2) The developed models of the student citizenship indicators were in consistence with the empirical data as presented in Table 2. According to Table 2, the student citizenship in this research contained 6 core components, 20 subcomponents, and 54 indicators. The correlation among the indicators in each model was statistically significant at .01 (p < .01). This indicated that the models were suitable for the component analysis. When the components were analyzed, it was found that the hypothesized components were consistent with the empirical data. The factor loading of all the indicators was statistically significant. This confirmed that all these 54 indicators were critical indicators of the 6 components in the student citizenship. The findings and discussions of the 6 components are presented in more detail below.
Responsibility comprised 4 subcomponents and 12 indicators. This component was consisted with the empirical data (Chi-square = 40.62, df = 19, p = 0.00, GFI = 0.99, AGFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.04, RMR = 0.01). The 4 subcomponents are ranged in a descending order as 1) obligation to perform duties, 2) responsibility for assignments, 3) commitment to perform duties, and 4) acceptance of both good and bad results from work done. This accorded with Yeerum, Amornrattanasak, and Srihaset (2018) who analyzed the factors for characterizing democratic citizenship of lower secondary students at opportunity expansion schools. They discovered 15 components of the democratic citizenship, namely 1) responsibility, 2) skills, 3) seeking knowledge, 4) morality, 5) the characteristics of democratic politics in government, 6) conservation of the environment, 7) having a public mind, 8) traditional and cultural citizenship, 9) showing respect for others, 10) showing leadership in bringing to bear dhamma principles on life, 11) creativity, 12) self-reliance, 13) living a life in society, 14) social and economic roles, and 15) showing respect for rights, freedom, equality, and human dignity.
Respect for equality comprised 3 subcomponents and 7 indicators. This component was consisted with the empirical data (Chi-square = 12.93, df = 11, p = 0.29802, RMSEA=0.019, GFI = 0.99, AGFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.019, RMR = 0.024). The 3 subcomponents are ranged in a descending order as 1) respect for the human dignity and equality of others, 2) life in the society without social classification, and 3) economic security based on one's abilities. This supported Siriyan and Mason (2018) who studied concepts of social structure theory, citizenship, citizen development in democratic regime in the 21st century, theory of development, and theory of developing the citizen in democracy. They presented 5 principles of citizenship in democratic regime in the 21st century; 1) taking responsibility for and rely on oneself, 2) respecting for equality and human right, 3) respecting for differences, 4) respecting for rules, 5) taking responsibility for social and public sectors. The 4 subcomponents are ranged in a descending order as 1) participation in activities for public advantages, 2) readiness to sacrifice and devote for the public, 3) selflessness, and 4) awareness of public advantages. This was in line with Phosing and Threedetch (2019) who studied a development model of conscious democratic ways of learning for Rajabhat University students. They concluded that key elements of democratic citizenship for university students are thinking skills, respect for rules and regulations, respect for the rights of others, social responsibility, participation in public activities, respect for differences, and shared social responsibility.
Roles and responsibilities of oneself included 3 subcomponents and 8 indicators. This component was accordance with the empirical data (Chi-square = 27.08, df = 11, p = 0.00, GFI = 0.99, AGFI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.05, RMR = 0.01). The 3 subcomponents are ranged in a descending order as 1) roles assigned and related to the social structure, 2) roles or behavior expected by groups of people or the society, and 3) roles practiced and perceived by others. This finding also supported Suntonanantachai et al. (2019) (2017). The framework is consisted of self-responsibility and self-reliance, respect for the principle of equality, respect for the differences, respect for the rights of others, respect for the rules, and social and public responsibility.
Rights and liberty contained 3 subcomponents and 8 indicators. This component was consistent with the empirical data (Chi-square = 28.72, df = 1, p = 0.00, RMSEA = 0.06, GFI = 0.98, AGFI = 0.95, RMR = 0.01). The 3 subcomponents are ranged in a descending order as 1) the life and body, 2) family and privacy, and 3) expression of opinions. This confirmed a case study by Promthong and Trakarnsirinont (2017) on citizenship of the people in Umong Subdistrict, Mueang District, Lamphun Province. The results of the study revealed that the desirable attributes of citizenship most found in Umong Subdistrict could be arranged in a descending order as 1) moral shame and conscience, 2) honesty and integrity, 3) courage and confidence, 4) sharing ideas for tackling problems, 5) supporting and promoting a good person, 6) unity, 7) displaying concern for problems in local community, and 8) playing roles in solving problems. The research also found that families, educational institutions, government sectors, peer groups, religious institutions as well as mass media were all considered as the important factors in strengthening the citizenship of the people.

Conclusion
It is concluded that all the indicators constructed in this study were at a high level of suitability. Also, they all were consisted with one another at a high level. The student citizenship indicators were enclosed in the 6 components; 1) responsibility, 2) respect for equality, 3) respect for the rights of others, 4) public-mind, 5) roles and responsibilities of oneself, and 6) rights and liberty. They are regarded as important components of student citizenship that can develop students or the general public to become aware of problems and solutions in the global society. They are expected to work with others effectively, be responsible for and fulfill roles and duties in the society, understand, accept, and appreciate different cultures. They have to think critically and systematically, be willing to resolve conflicts through peaceful approaches, be willing to change lifestyles and habits with a public mind. They have to recognize and protect human rights and get willing to participate in political activities.

For Applications
1) The research results are applicable to revising curricula for citizenship development. Citizenship-related subjects can be improved to be core subjects at primary and secondary schools under the Office of the Basic Education Commission in Yasothon Province.
2) Purposive activities should be organized to educate families and parents as families are a basic unit to build the nation's youth to be good citizens who have knowledge, understandings, skills, attitudes, and values of being model citizens for living in the democratic society.
3) Support should be given to organizations that hold activities and gather community members to raise awareness of and responsibility for the local community.
4) Schools or organizations should promote honor and recognize citizens who behave as role models for the society. Such institutions should support good citizenship that connects and integrates learning at all levels including formal education, informal education, and lifelong learning.

For Further Research
1) There should be research on assessment of student citizenship in secondary education in northeastern Thailand.
2) There should be research on development of citizenship curricula in basic education, vocational education, and higher education with a purpose of formulating policy proposals with in-depth content in accordance with the situations in the Thai society in the future.
co-authors. They have wholeheartedly given their encouragement and guidance throughout the research process. I would like to express my gratitude to the experts for their constructive and insightful comments. My sincere thanks also go to all the samples at different schools that have fulfilled the research methodology.
I would also like to thank Mr. Yuttachak Lamjuanjit, a lecturer of the Business English Program, Roi Et Rajabhat University, Thailand, for his excellent translation of the original draft into this English article and his assistance and guidance in the entire manuscript preparation and submission process.
Finally, I wish to thank my family for their support and encouragement throughout my study.