Using a New Cenozoic Glacial History Paradigm to Explain Saline-Smoky Hill River Drainage Divide Area Topographic Map Evidence: Kansas, USA

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Introduction
United States Geological Survey (USGS) topographic maps provide much of the information needed to reconstruct how present-day drainage systems evolved. The best information is found on 1:24,000 scale topographic maps, although 1:62,500, 1:100,000, 1:125,000, and even 1:250,000 scale maps contain useful information. USGS topographic maps at one or more of the above scales have been available for decades, yet the geologic literature rarely mentions the use of topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence. For example, topographic maps at a scale of 1:125,000 covering the eastern Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide area were first published prior to 1900 (see the USGS Topoview website), yet Bayne and Fent (1963) in a paper titled "The drainage history of the upper Kansas River" which includes the Saline-Smoky River drainage divide area do not mention using topographic maps as an information source (although they probably used topographic maps for some of their elevation data).
The Saline River (see figure 1) flows in an east direction from western Kansas and for much of its distance is 20 to 35 kilometers to the north of the roughly parallel east-oriented Smoky Hill River, although before joining the Saline River the Smoky Hill River turns in a southeast and then north direction. Using physiographic regions defined by Frye and Schoewe (1953) Cooper (2001) uses present-day elevation data to argue against a Sharp (1894) and Frye and Leonard (1952) hypothesis that ice-marginal lake water spilled westward to the Saline-Smoky Hill River confluence area and then southward perhaps along the now north-oriented Smoky Hill River alignment. Otherwise, previous investigators have not reported evidence or even suggested that icesheet meltwater crossed any of the higher elevation Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide areas to the west. The 1963 Bayne and Fent paper was written when 1:125,000 scale topographic maps (first published prior to 1900) were the most detailed maps available for most eastern Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide areas (1:250,000 scale topographic maps became available for the entire drainage divide area in the 1950s with 1:24,000 scale maps becoming available at various dates during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s). While containing considerable useful drainage system and erosional landform information the early 1:125,000 scale maps contained misinformation as well. For example, figure 2 illustrates the south-southwest and north-oriented East Elkhorn Creek drainage route (located about 15 km to the north and east of Ellsworth, Kansas) as shown on all USGS topographic maps published since 1985. Prior to 1985 the published USGS topographic maps did not show the south-southwest oriented East Elkhorn Creek headwaters, but instead showed north-oriented Brush Creek headwaters flowing on much of the same route. In spite of such errors enough of the early topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence was correctly shown that meaningful regional drainage history reconstructions could have been done. Interestingly, Bayne et al (1971) and Cline (1974) who also do not mention using topographic maps include a drainage system map which shows the correct East Elkhorn Creek drainage route and suggest headward erosion of the north-oriented East Elkhorn Creek valley captured what originally were south-southwest oriented Clear Creek headwaters. Pre-1985 USGS topographic maps of the Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide area probably aided researchers in identifying the abandoned Wilson Valley (located at the red number 1 in figure 1), which stretches in a southeast direction across the present-day Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide from where the Saline River valley (now flooded by Wilson Lake) makes a turn from a southeast direction to a northeast direction. Bayne and Fent (1963) based on earlier work by Fent (1950) and Frye and Leonard (1952)  . These previously published interpretations were made by investigators who do not report using topographic maps as an information source but who do report making detailed studies of surficial and subsurface sediments (which topographic maps both past and present do not show).
USGS 1:24,000 scale topographic maps suggest there is much more to Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide history than what the above previously published interpretations describe. As noted, previously published interpretations do not mention using topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence and such an omission is not unusual. In spite of excellent 1:24,000 scale topographic map coverage the geologic literature rarely mentions any use of the topographic map drainage system or erosional landform evidence probably because much of the topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence is anomalous evidence which the accepted Cenozoic geology and glacial history paradigm (accepted paradigm) cannot satisfactorily explain.
According to Kuhn (1970) scientists address anomalous evidence in one of three ways: 1.) the accepted paradigm, perhaps with some creative tweaking, eventually develops a way to explain the evidence and the accepted paradigm continues without a serious interruption; 2.) the anomalous evidence is described, or in this case mapped, and set aside for future scientists to explain; or 3.) someone finds a new paradigm able to explain what the accepted paradigm cannot explain and a battle over which paradigm to use then ensues. Most of the well-mapped drainage system and erosional landform evidence, not just in the Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide area but throughout the entire United States, has been set aside and is waiting for future geologists to figure out how that evidence can be explained.
Realizing the geologic literature has for many decades been ignoring much of the well-mapped USGS topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence the author of this paper (Clausen) spent many years trying to find a Cenozoic geology and glacial history paradigm (new paradigm) which would be able to explain Missouri River drainage basin topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence. The resulting new paradigm is fundamentally different from the accepted paradigm and the two paradigms are incommensurable and cannot be easily compared, but the new paradigm explains the topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence and the accepted paradigm does not.
Briefly the new paradigm, as described in Clausen (2020a) sees a Cenozoic glacial history which began with a thick North America continental icesheet (located where icesheets are usually reported to have been) and which created and occupied a deep "hole". The deep "hole" southwest rim followed what is now the east-west continental divide stretching from the Canadian border to the Arkansas River headwaters and then extending eastward along what is now the western Arkansas River drainage basin while the deep "hole" southeast rim followed what is now the Ohio River-Atlantic Ocean drainage divide (see figure 3). Immense south-oriented meltwater floods first flowed across the rising the deep "hole" rim, but were diverted by deep "hole" rim uplift to flow inside the deep "hole" rim to reach what eventually became the deep "hole's" only remaining southern outlet (the Mississippi River valley). Late during the thick icesheet's decay, headward erosion of north-oriented valleys from deep "hole" space that icesheet melting was opening up diverted huge icesheet-marginal floods into the deep "hole" and eventually across the deep "hole" floor to reach northern oceans. The diversion of the immense meltwater floods and other drainage from the Gulf of Mexico to northern oceans triggered much colder climates which froze north-oriented water around detached and semi-detached thick icesheet remnants to create a second and much thinner icesheet and which resulted in an "Ice Age" and alpine glacier development in higher mountain ranges.
The new paradigm considers most Missouri River drainage basin valleys (large enough to be shown on 1:24,000 scale topographic maps) to have been eroded headward along and/or across immense and long-lived meltwater floods. This headward erosion process is described in many papers this author (Clausen) has published to demonstrate how the new paradigm enables explanations of detailed topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence such as in western North and South Dakota (Clausen, 2017), western Nebraska (Clausen, 2020b), and eastern Colorado (Clausen, 2022

Research Method
Research was primarily done using USGS detailed topographic maps (originally mapped at a scale of 1:24,000) and tools (such as a spot elevation tool) which are now available at the USGS National Map website. The Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide was first subdivided into county size subsections and in each county subsection the Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide, as identified on detailed topographic maps, was studied to determine the presence of low points (referred to as divide crossings) linking north-oriented Saline River tributary valleys with south-oriented Smoky Hill River tributary valleys. Divide crossings were interpreted to be where water once flowed across the drainage divide with the drainage divide being formed when headward erosion of a deeper valley beheaded the flow so as to reverse flow in one of the two opposing valleys so as to create the drainage divide. Barbed tributaries where present were used to determine in which of the two opposing tributary valleys the drainage had been reversed and which of the two major river valleys had beheaded the flow. Closely-spaced divide crossings found all along the drainage divide were interpreted to be evidence that large complexes of flood-formed diverging and converging channels once crossed the drainage divide. If so, each east-oriented valley should have eroded headward in advance of the east-oriented valley immediately to the north, although the two valleys may have been eroding simultaneously with the southern valley's headward erosion being only slightly ahead of the northern valley's headward erosion. For this reason, drainage divides between all larger east-, southeast-, and northeast-oriented tributary streams which are located between the Saline and Smoky Hill Rivers were also checked for evidence of closely-spaced divide crossings linking opposing north-and south-oriented tributary valleys and to determine if map evidence suggested their north-oriented headwaters and tributaries had originated as south-oriented drainage routes (e. g. by checking for barbed tributaries).

Saline County Drainage Divide Segment
The  Figure 4 illustrates divide crossings along a Saline River-Bullfoot Creek drainage divide segment which suggest Saline River valley headward erosion captured multiple south-oriented flood flow channels that had been moving water to a probably newly-eroded Bullfoot Creek valley.

Russell County Drainage Divide Segment
The simplest Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide segment is located in eastern Russell County (to the east of the town of Russell) where the east-oriented Saline River is located approximately 20 kilometers to the north of the east-oriented Smoky Hill River. This simple drainage divide segment is characterized by shallow divide crossings linking opposing south-oriented Smoky Hill River and north-oriented Saline River tributaries. Figure 6 illustrates one such divide crossing at the red number 1 which is approximately 9 kilometers to the southeast of Russell (the town) and which shows up well on the detailed topographic maps. Shallow divide crossings cross the western Russell County Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide which is located between east-oriented Salt Creek (which flows to the Saline River at a point where the Saline River turns from flowing in a southeast direction to an east direction) and the Smoky Hill River. Numerous shallow divide crossings are present along the Saline River-Salt Creek drainage divide and also along drainage divides between east-oriented Salt Creek tributaries. The divide crossings provide evidence that multiple streams of south-oriented water once crossed all of the west-to-east oriented drainage divides and must have been captured in sequence from the south to the north by Smoky Hill River valley headward erosion, Salt Creek valley (and tributary valley) headward erosion, and finally by Saline River valley headward erosion. Previous publications in which the use of topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence is not mentioned describe the development of the Russell County drainage system as a Pleistocene event. For example, Arbogast and Johnson (1996, p. 37) who used topographic maps for geologic mapping purposes, but who otherwise emphasized stratigraphic information commented "at some time during the early Pleistocene, after aggradation of stream channels with a Rocky Mountain sediment load, a period of major erosion, stream system development, and entrenchment occurred in Russell County. No sediments from this time have been positively identified owing to their antiquity, unconsolidated nature, and probable high topographic position. The present drainage pattern in Russell County was apparently established no later than late pre-Illinoian." Arbogast and Johnson give no details and make no mention of east-oriented valleys that eroded headward across large south-oriented floods, although large south-oriented floods were probably responsible for the erosion event they mention.

Ellis County Drainage Divide Segment
The Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide as it progresses westward from Russell County into Ellis County becomes asymmetrical with southeast-and east-oriented Big Creek located between the two rivers (Big Creek flows to the Smoky Hill River). To the north of the Big Creek drainage basin the Saline River flows in an east and southeast direction as it crosses northern Ellis County. The northeast Ellis County Blue Hills which are a 50-meter-high northeast-facing escarpment in northeastern Ellis County (seen in figure 7) are located to the southwest of the southeast-oriented Saline River segment. The northeast-facing escarpment appears to be an erosional feature as the Neuhauser and Pool (1988) Ellis County geologic map shows no surficial evidence of geologic structures (although oil fields underly the region).
Divide crossings along the escarpment crest (some are identified by red numbers) link north-oriented Saline River tributary valleys with south-and southeast-oriented valleys draining to southeast-oriented Walker Creek and North Fork Big Creek which both flow to east-oriented Big Creek. More detailed topographic maps with a 10-foot (3-meter) contour interval (as opposed to the 10-meter contour interval seen in figure 7) show many more such divide crossings. These divide crossings indicate that prior to Saline River valley headward erosion multiple channels of south-oriented water must have flowed across the area to what was probably an actively eroding Big Creek valley head. In eastern Ellis County shallow divide crossings (similar to the divide crossing seen in figure 6)

Trego, Sheridan, Gove County and Westward Drainage Divide Segment
The east-oriented Saline River flows across northern Trego County, the east-oriented Smoky Hill River flows across southern Trego County, and southeast-and east-oriented Big Creek flows between the two rivers. Spring Creek is a southeast-oriented Big To the west of the Spring Creek headwaters (near WaKeeney) east-and northeast-oriented Trego Creek is located between the Saline River and an east-oriented Big Creek segment. The Trego Creek direction change is located to the north of figure 8 which shows four different divide crossings (identified by red numbers) across the Saline River-Big Creek drainage divide. These divide crossings suggest Saline River valley headward erosion beheaded and reversed diverging and converging channels which were moving south-oriented water to the Big Creek drainage basin. Each of these multiple drainage divides gradually slopes in an east direction from western Gove County where elevations exceed 900 meters to eastern Gove County where elevations are less than 800 meters. The most detailed topographic maps show shallow divide crossings (frequently defined by only one 10-foot or 3-meter contour line) along these east-sloping drainage divides with the most prominent divide crossings linking northand south-oriented tributaries to the southeast-and east-oriented Big and Hackberry Creek drainage system valleys. The shallow divide crossings suggest the east-and southeast-oriented Gove County valleys, like in the counties further to the east, were eroded headward in sequence from south to north across what must have been south-oriented floods flowing in shallow diverging and converging channels as regional uplift gradually raised western Kansas relative to regions further to the east. The Saline River is formed in the Sheridan County southwest corner at the confluence of its east-oriented South Fork and east-southeast oriented North Fork. The South Fork flows across southern Thomas County (directly to the west of Sheridan County) and a short distance to the north of the asymmetric Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide which separates east-oriented South Fork Saline River drainage from drainage to southeast-oriented Hackberry Creek tributaries and headwaters. Shallow divide crossings which can be seen on detailed topographic maps such as the four divide crossings seen in figure 9 which indicate that headward erosion of the east-oriented South Fork Saline River valley was across multiple streams of south-oriented water.
Previous investigators (many who worked before the most detailed topographic maps became available) apparently did not consider whatever divide crossing evidence they saw as being important, although some early investigators saw evidence for a period of erosion as the present-day drainage system developed. For example, Frye (1945) reported that following deposition of the Ogallala "algal limestone the major streams, in whatever position they happened to occupy, started to entrench their channels through their former deposits and, in those areas where the Ogallala was quite thin, into the underlying bedrock. The causes for this period of erosion are complex and probably include both differential uplift and climate change." Not mentioned in Frye's report are the shallow divide crossings which indicate the South Fork Saline River valley must have eroded headward across multiple south-oriented streams of water.

Discussion
Detailed topographic maps show closely-spaced and often shallow divide crossings along all Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide segments stretching from the western Kansas Saline River headwaters area to the much lower elevation central Kansas Saline-Smoky Hill River confluence area. These divide crossings suggest the Saline River valley eroded headward across massive south-oriented floods. Previous investigators do not mention using topographic maps as an information source nor do they mention the divide crossings or suggest that the Saline River valley eroded headward across large south-oriented floods, although they do mention one or more periods of Pleistocene erosion that occurred as the present-day drainage systems evolved. The topographic map evidence by itself provides no way to determine when during geologic time the Smoky Hill and Saline River valleys eroded headward across south-oriented floods, although continental icesheet meltwater is the most likely floodwater source. If so, from the accepted paradigm perspective (and the perspective of most previous workers) the large south-oriented floods probably would have occurred after deposition of the Pliocene Ogallala formation and perhaps following the Pleistocene Kansan or Nebraskan glaciations.  Gradual uplift which occurred while east-oriented Kansas river valleys were eroding headward in sequence from south to north across large south-oriented meltwater floods (as the topographic map evidence indicates) is precisely what the new paradigm predicts. Uplift of the new paradigm's deep "hole" southern rim (located to the south and west of the Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide area) would have gradually diverted immense south-oriented meltwater floods from flowing directly to the Gulf of Mexico to flowing in an east direction toward the Mississippi River valley, which eventually became the deep "hole's" only southern exit. This eastward diversion of the immense south-oriented meltwater floods would have been responsible for the headward erosion of east-oriented valleys in sequence (as the detailed topographic map evidence suggests) from the south to the north as uplift raised the deep "hole's" southwestern rim. However, the new and accepted paradigms describe completely different and incommensurable Cenozoic geologic and glacial histories and those histories are incompatible and cannot be easily compared. Topographic map evidence for numerous, yet previously unmentioned, closely-spaced divide crossings along the Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide as described here strongly supports the new paradigm interpretation and points out the dangers of failing to study the detailed topographic map drainage system and erosional landform evidence whenever trying to interpret a region's Cenozoic geologic and/or glacial history.

Conclusions
Previously published reports describing the Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide area geologic history do not mention using USGS topographic maps as an information source, although topographic maps probably provided at least some of the elevation data used. This omission of important topographic map information is unfortunate as topographic maps (especially detailed topographic maps) show valuable drainage history information such as divide crossings or low points along present-day drainage divides. In the case of the Saline-Smoky Hill River drainage divide, closely-spaced divide crossings are found along the entire drainage divide and indicate the east-oriented Saline River valley eroded headward across multiple closely-spaced south-oriented streams of water such as might occur in a large flood-formed anastomosing channel complex. Similar divide crossings are also found along drainage divides separating east-oriented While previous investigators working from the accepted paradigm perspective usually consider the development of most Kansas drainage systems to have occurred during Pleistocene time the accepted and new paradigm are incommensurable and how and even whether new paradigm events fit into the accepted paradigm geologic time scale cannot be determined from the topographic map evidence. The topographic map evidence illustrated here definitely shows that previous investigators have overlooked and/or ignored critically important evidence and also demonstrates the new paradigm's remarkable ability to explain detailed topographic map drainage and erosional landform evidence. Further work in additional geographic regions is needed to further test the new paradigm's ability to explain topographic map evidence.