The findings highlight a significant increase in global research output, with China and Iran emerging as influential contributors alongside traditionally dominant countries such as the USA, UK, and Australia. The United States remains the most cited country, although its research output is widely distributed across multiple institutions. In contrast, countries such as China and Iran exhibit centralised growth. At the institutional level, the University of Melbourne and Islamic Azad University demonstrate strong and growing contributions.

Citation patterns reveal the enduring influence of foundational research while also pointing to newer areas of inquiry, including AI-driven assessment and blockchain verification systems. However, despite growing interest, these technologies have not yet dominated citation metrics. The study also observes fluctuations in average annual citations, with peaks corresponding to key developments in assessment policy and technological adaptation—particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Overall, the analysis reveals the persistence of traditional academic powerhouses and the rising participation of emerging contributors. The study underscores the need for equitable global research partnerships and highlights the potential of technology to reshape the future of language assessment.

Descriptive findings showed that teachers systematically use L2, especially when presenting new material, explaining grammar and vocabulary, and providing feedback. L1, however, is used selectively to clarify difficult points, provide cognitive scaffolding, and offer emotional support to students. Nonparametric tests (Mann–Whitney U and Kruskal–Wallis) showed that most demographic characteristics do not influence the use of the two languages, with the exception of the teaching level, which consistently predicts a higher use of the L2. Overall, the findings show dominance of L2 in all teaching functions and selective, strategic use of L1, as well as a high degree of convergence between stated and observed practice. The teaching level emerged as the only consistent differentiating factor. This study contributes to the discussion on teacher cognition and the application of the translanguaging approach in the Greek EFL context, highlighting the importance of conscious language choice in teaching practice.

The study contributes to the debate on the balanced L1/L2 use in an EFL context, highlighting the dominance of L2 and the strategic, targeted role of L1. Pedagogical implications and suggestions for future research are also presented.