Analysis of Culture-Specific Items and Translation Strategies Applied in Translating Jalal Al-Ahmad’s by the Pen

Due to differences across languages, meanings and concepts vary across different languages, too. The most obvious points of difference between languages appear in their literature and their culture-specific items (CSIs), which lead to complexities when transferring meanings and concepts from one language into another. To overcome the complexities arisen from the distinction between languages in the process of translation, translation scholars have proposed different strategies. Newmark’s proposed taxonomy for translating CSIs is the framework for achieving this study. So, after adopting CSIs with Newmark’s (1988) 5 proposed domains of CSIs, we sought to find his proposed translation strategies applied in the English translation of Jalal Al-Ahmad’s By the Pen by Ghanoonparvar (1988) and to evaluate the frequency of each in order to determine which strategy could help the most in translating CSIs. To do so, first, both the source language text and its translation were studied; then, the translation strategies applied were found. Having found the strategies as the sources of the data, they were arranged and analyzed. Results showed that functional equivalent was the most frequently used strategy, and modulation and paraphrase were the least frequently used ones. Findings have pedagogical implications for translation students and literary translators.


Introduction
According to Bassnett (2002), translation deals with a whole set of extralinguistic criteria.Hervey and Higgins (1992) state in the process of translation proper or correct translation, that the translator bridges the cultural gap between monolingual speakers of different languages.The cultural distances between the source text (ST) audience and the target text (TT) audience can produce a fundamental dissimilarity between the effects of the ST and those of the TT.Cultural gap can best be seen in literary translations; literary works, due to their great number of culture-specific items (CSIs), specific values, aesthetic, and expressive features, are more difficult to translate than other kinds of texts.The more a translator is aware of the complexities of the differences between cultures, the better he or she will translate.Therefore, language and culture are closely related to and also inseparable from each other.Nord (1997) refers to Agar's (1991) emphasis on the interdependency of language and culture, stating that Agar views languaculture as a single entity, declaring that the culture boundary is marked by rich points, as the differences in behaviour, which cause the incompatibility of cultures or breakdowns of communication between two communities in contact.When encountering a new language, some things as new lexical items and grammatical forms are easy to learn; by learning them, one can talk to the people of that language.Other things are more difficult and one needs a little effort to bridge the differences from a language to another.However, one also encounters some things that he or she requires to challenge with their difficulty, their complexity, and their inability to fit into the resources he or she uses to make sense out of the world; these the so-called rich points things include lexical items through speech acts up to the notions about the world.Moreover, regarding the indispensability of language and culture Kolawole and Salawu (2008) state that literary translation deals with translating literary language texts which are full of ambiguities, homonyms, and arbitrariness; the lexis and style of each literary author is peculiar to him or her and he or she applies his or her own ideal literary techniques such as figures of speech, proverbs, and homonyms through which he or she makes literary forms.As a result, literary language is highly connotative and subjective.Thus, the more cultural overlap exists between the source and target languages, the less translation problems will be.According to Venuti (2004), where two languages are not linguistically and culturally distant, the translators come across the least number of serious problems.Translating CSIs in literary translations is seemingly one of the most challenging tasks to be carried out by a translator because it involves the difficulty of producing well-translated texts, along with being faithful to the message.Larson (1984) defines culture as a collection of beliefs, attitudes, values, and rules among a group of people.The particular culture of the society produces the specific language of that society, and the language, itself, reflects the kind of culture.
To explain the concept of culture and culture-specificity, according to Vermeer (1986( , as cited in Nord, 1997)), culture is whatever one has to know for how to behave, feel, and act in a society in order to conform to general expectations of that society, unless one is prepared to undertake the consequences of his or her unaccepted behavior.As cited in Nord (1997), in his definition, Vermeer (1986) has emphasized human action and behavior as the dynamic qualities of this definition, conceiving culture as a complex system which determines any human action or behavior, including language.Nord (1997) states that this definition by Vermeer (1986) may be a move toward a descriptive, as well as explicative, or prescriptive approach to culture-specificity. Nord (1997) states that for Vermeer (1987), a culture is the entire setting of norms and conventions which an individual as a member of his society must know in order to be like everybody-or to be able to be different from everybody.According to Vermeer (1990, as cited in Nord, 1997): Every cultural phenomenon is assigned a position in a complex system of values; it is evaluated.And, every individual is an element in a system of space-time coordinates.If this is accepted, transcultural action or communication across culture barriers has to take account of cultural differences with regard to behavior, evaluation, and communicative situations (p.33).
Languages encompass plenty of CSIs; however, it is difficult to define exactly what can be classified in a text as culture-specific.According to Aixela (1996), CSIs are, "elements of the text that are connected to certain concepts in the foreign culture (history, art, literature) which might be unknown to the readers of the TT" (p.14).Therefore, it can be concluded that CSIs result in the existence of an intercultural gap between the SL and the TL.Such a gap is found where an item in the ST does not exist in the TL culture, or the TL has no word for that item.To bridge the cultural gaps between languages and produce a comprehensible translation which mirrors the contents of the original text, translation scholars have proposed different strategies and procedures.Among those who have proposed their strategies for translation, Newmark (1988) first proposes five domains for classifying foreign cultural words.These domains are: 1) Ecology (flora, fauna, winds, plains, hills) 2) Material culture (food, clothes, houses and towns, transport) 3) Social culture (work and leisure) 4) Organizations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts (political and administrative, religious, artistic 5) Gesture and habits And then, he introduces different strategies for translating CSIs;.Newmark's (1988) taxonomy includes:  Transference: It is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text as a translation procedure.It includes transliteration, which relates to the conversion of different alphabets: for example, Russian (Cyrillic), Greek, Arabic, and so on into English.The word, then, becomes a loan word.It includes transliteration and is the same as what is called transcription. Functional Equivalent: In this procedure, a culture-free word is used, sometimes a new specific term is used; therefore, it generalizes the SL word.


Descriptive Equivalent: In this procedure, the meaning of the CBT is explained in several words.


Componential Analysis: It means comparing an SL word with a TL word which has a similar meaning, although not being its one-to-one equivalent, by presenting, first, their common, and then, their differing sense components.
 Synonymy: It is a near TL equivalent.Here economy trumps accuracy.
The purpose of the present study was to investigate Newmark's (1988) strategies for translating CSIs applied in Jalal Al-Ahmad's By the Pen by Ghanoonparvar (1988) to determine which strategy can help most in the translation of the CSIs to make the ST more comprehensible for the readers of the TT.The translator has employed certain kinds of translation strategies.Therefore, this study started with samples of the theoretical principles of CSIs translation applied by the translator in his translation; then, the data were analyzed and discussed; finally, the success or failure ratios of all procedures were investigated.So, based on what was mentioned above, the following research questions were posed to be answered in this study: 1) Which translation strategies of Newmark's model have been applied in the English translation of Jalal Al-Ahmad's By the Pen by Ghanoonparvar (1988)?
2) What is the frequency of use of each strategy in the translation of Jalal Al-Ahmad's By the Pen by Ghanoonparvar (1988)?
3) Based on the frequency of use, which translation strategy can be regarded as the best and most effective translation strategy in translating culture-specific items in such folklore literary texts as Jalal Al-Ahmad's By the Pen?

Materials
We chose By the Pen and its English translation by Ghanoonparvar (1988) as the corpus of the study because it is a famous Persian folklore story and the author was-if not the best-one of the best authors of his era.The other reason for choosing this story is that it displays the translation of CSIs, and encompasses a great number of CSIs which can fulfill the requirements of this research and provides valuable sources of the data.Dehkhoda Dictionary (Dehkhoda,194), Farhang Farsi (Moeen, 2006) and Oxford Learner's Dictionary were used as the sources to find the meanings of the words in Persian and English.

Procedure
The methodology was library research and a descriptive-interpretive analysis of the ST and the TT.Newmark's (1988) classification of CSIs was adopted as the theoretical framework of this study that aimed at carrying out an analysis of the CSIs in By the Pen, detecting and describing strategies proposed by Newmark (1988) to cope with CSIs, and to find the frequency of each.In this study, it was the context which determined the unit of analysis.So, the unit of analysis could be a word, a phrase, or a sentence.The procedure contained the three following phases: (1) starting with reading the ST (i.e., the original literary text) to find the CSIs based on Newmark's (1988) domains for the CSIs (i.e., ecology, material culture, social culture, organizations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts, and gesture and habits), (2) reading the TT (i.e., the translation by Ghanoonparvar, 1988) to find the translation of the CSIs in the TT, and (3) comparing the ST CSIs with their equivalents in the TT to discriminate Newmark's proposed strategies for translating the CSIs.For better understanding, each strategy is defined and illustrated by examples in Tables 1-15: Transference includes transliteration and is the same as what is called transcription.The word, then, becomes a loan word.In descriptive equivalent, the meaning of the culture bound term is explained in several words.

Data Analysis
After categorizing the CSIs according to Newmark's taxonomy and finding their equivalents in the TT, we worked on Newmark's strategies for translating the CSIs applied in By the Pen, including transference, naturalization, cultural equivalent, functional equivalent, descriptive equivalent, componential analysis, synonymy, through-translation, shifts, recognized translation, modulation, paraphrase compensation notes, and couplets.Then, we arranged the data gained in Tables 1-15 in order to shows the cases of applying Newmark's strategies for translating the CSIs.After that, we analyzed the data in Table 16 to represent the frequency of use of each strategy.

Results
According to the data in Table 16, functional equivalent was the most frequently used strategy in translating the CSIs, and modulation and paraphrase were the least frequently used strategies.Other strategies were synonymy, componential analysis, couplets, notes, through-translation, transference, naturalization, cultural equivalent, descriptive equivalent, shifts, compensation, recognized translation; finally, modulation and paraphrase occupied the same point at the end.For better representation, all of the data obtained are shown in figures in the following section.
Table 16.Frequency and percentage of frequency of each applied strategy

The Most and the Least Frequently Applied Strategies in Figures
Figure 1 shows the frequency of use of all strategies, and Figure 2 shows the percentage of use of all strategies:

Discussion
As the results of the study showed, the translator has applied functional equivalent more than other strategies.It shows that the translator has intended to make the SL text more comprehensible to the readers of the TL.Also, in fifty cases, he has applied transference which indicates his respect to the SL culture.
Another point of discussion about the results of this research is that due to the translator's respect for SL culture, he has added some extra information for 60 words at the end of his translation to explain them, so that he could make them understandable for the readers of the TT.
The followings are the points of discussions needed to be made for the use of each of the strategies;  Transference Followings are some of the cases of applying transference.For some words in this text, there are also some extra information in the glossary.These words are as follows: ‫ﺳﻮرﯼ‬ ‫ﭼﻬﺎرﺷﻨﺒﻪ‬ /tʃa:ha:rʃaenbe su:ri:/: Chaharshanbehsouri; in addition to the information mentioned in the glossary, the translator has added right after Chaharshanbehsouri in the text, "which is celebrated on the eve of the last Wednesday of the year."In other words, he has applied paraphrase and it seems to be a good idea.
The words ‫ﺗﮑﻴﻪ‬ /tekiə/ and ‫ﺣﺴﻴﻨﻴﻪ‬ /hɔsejniə/ have been translated to Tekke and Hosayniyyeh.These two words have some specific features in Iranian culture.There are some pieces of information in the glossary; however, some extra information should be added at the end of the text or even in the form of footnote.
The words /aebba:si:/‫ﻋﺒﺎﺳﯽ‬ and ‫ﻗﺮان‬ /qeraʌn/ have been translated to Abbasi and Qeran.Abbasi and Qeran were units of money respectively in safavid Shah 'Abbâs and in the 19 th century in Iran.The translator has added some information about them in the glossary at the end of the text.
The words ‫ﺁﻗﺎ‬ /a:qa:/, ‫ﻣﻴﺮزا‬ /mi:rza:/, ‫ﺳﻴﺪ‬ /sejed/, ‫اﻟﺸﺮﻳﻌﻪ‬ ‫ﻣﻴﺰان‬ /mi:za:nɔʃaeri:ə/, and ‫دﻳﻮان‬ /di:va:n/ have been translated to aqa, Mirza, Seyyed, Mizanoshshari'eh, and Divan.The translator has added some extra information about these words in the glossary.He has used a good technique.This is also true about the translation of the words:

 Componential Analysis
The phrase ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻊ‬ ‫ﻣﺴﺠﺪ‬ /maesdӡede dӡa:me/ has been translated to the grand mosque.Congregation mosque could be used instead.But even by translating it to congregation mosque, the strategy used is componential analysis because of not existing any cultural background for ‫ﺟﺎﻣﻊ‬ ‫ﻣﺴﺠﺪ‬ /maesdӡede dӡa:me/ in the TL.This phrase has a cultural background in Persian, and the TL has not cultural factors for this phrase.Also, the phrase ‫ﻏﺮﻳﺒﺎن‬ ‫ﺷﺎم‬ ‫ﺷﺐ‬ /ʃaebe ʃa:me qaeri:ba:n/ has been translated to: Night of holy prisoners.The translator could not deliver the real meaning of the word properly.

 Synonymy
The translator has used good equivalents for the words chosen, although, according to the Oxford Learner's Dictionary, for some of the cultural words there are more proper synonyms as the followings; The word ‫ﮐﻼﻧﺘﺮ‬ /kaela:ntaer/ has been translated to: chief constable.The word marshal could be used as a better synonym for this word in the TL.Because, according to the Oxford Learner's Dictionary, marshal is a police officer in certain area or city.
The word ‫داروﻏﻪ‬ /da:ru:qe/ has been translated to: civil magistrate.The word sheriff could be used as a better equivalent for this word in the TL.
The word ‫ﺑﺎرو‬ /ba:ru:/ has been translated to: wall.The word rampart could be used as a better equivalent for this word in the TL.
The word ‫ﭼﺎروخ‬ /tʃa:ru:x/ has been translated to: sandal.The word clog seems to be more cultural, and thus, could be used as a better equivalent for this word in the TL.
For once, the word ‫ﻧﺴﺘﻌﻠﻴﻖ‬ /naestaeli:q/ has been translated to: polished.This is not a good equivalent for the word .
‫ﻧﺴﺘﻌﻠﻴﻖ‬ Here, the translator was better to apply transference like where he has applied Nasta'liq within the text to respect the SL culture.
The verb ‫ﮐﺮدن‬ ‫ﺗﺬهﻴﺐ‬ /taezhi:b kaerdaen/ has been translated to: illustrate.The verb gild could be used as a better synonym for this word in the TL.
The word ‫ﻣﺤﺮر‬ /mɔhaerrer/ has been translated to: clerk.The word amanuensis seems to convey the meaning better in the TL.
The word ‫دار‬ ‫اﻻغ‬ /ɔla:q da:r/ has been translated to: mule driver.The translator was better to use the word mule rider.
The word ‫ﺧﺎﻧﻪ‬ ‫دﺑﺎغ‬ /daebba:q xa:ne/ has been translated to: leather shop.The word tannery could be used as a better synonym for this word in the TL.
The word ‫ﻏﻴﺮت‬ ‫ﺑﯽ‬ /bi:qejraet/ has been translated to: good-for-nothing.In the TL, there is another word such as callous that could be used.
For some of the words in the text, the translator has even applied bad equivalents such as ‫ﮐﺮدن‬ ‫هﻴﺰﯼ‬ /hi:zi: kaerdaen/ has been translated to philandering.Philandering means "having casual sexual relationships with many different women."So, it is not a good equivalent.The verbs gaze and ogle could be used as better equivalents for this word, although the verb ogle conveys the meaning better.

 Shift or Transposition
‫هﺎ‬ ‫ﺳﻴﻦ‬ /si:n ha:/ and ‫هﺎ‬ ‫اﻟﻒ‬ /aelef ha:/ have been translated to the letters sin and alef.Here, we see conversion of plural to singular.
‫ﻗﺒﺎ‬ ‫داﻣﻦ‬ /da:maene qaeba:/ has been translated to: gown; two words have translated to one word.
‫ﻳﺰدﯼ‬ ‫ﭘﻴﭽﺎزﯼ‬ ‫ﭘﺎرﭼﻪ‬ /pa:rtʃeje pi: tʃa:zi:e jaezdi:/ has been translated to: Yazd-made clothing; ‫ﭘﻴﭽﺎزﯼ‬ is a kind of Yazd-made clothing which could have been translated to plaid, although the translator has not used this word.
The verb ‫ﺁﻣﺪن‬ ‫ﻣﻘﺮ‬ /maeqaer a:maedaen/ is translated to: confessing.In this case, the use of shift has been obligatory.
The verb ‫زدن‬ ‫ﮔﺮدﻧﯽ‬ ‫ﭘﺲ‬ /paes gaerdaeni: zaedaen/ has been translated to: pushing and shoving because we have word for this feature like slap on the neck, it should not have been applied.And, in the latter case, there is also the case of addition in which the translator has used two different words with almost one meaning; however, because it helps and emphasizes the act, it is not a big problem.

 Recognized Translation
The translator has used some equivalents which do not resemble the meaning in the SL exactly, but clearly show its meaning in the TL.For example: ‫ﺑﻮدﻧﺪ‬ ‫زدﻩ‬ ‫هﻢ‬ ‫ﺑﻪ‬ ‫دﺳﺘﮕﺎهﯽ‬ ‫و‬ ‫دﮐﺎن‬ ‫ﮐﻢ‬ ‫ﮐﻢ‬ /kaem kaem dɔka:n vae daestga:hi: be haem zaede bu:daend/ has been translated to: They had gradually established themselves as a sort of organization.
In the above mentioned example, although the translations is dissimilar to its Persian ones, the translator has used the equivalent that is generally accepted by target readers and also shows the meaning clearly.

 Modulation
There is only one case of applying modulation in this text.The word ‫ﺑﺨﺖ‬ ‫ﮔﺸﺎﻳﯽ‬ /baext gɔʃa:i:/ has been translated to: good luck.Here, the category of thought is different in the two languages belonging to two totally different cultures, and also the point of view of the ST has been changed in the TT.

 Paraphrase
There is only one case of applying paraphrase in this text.Due to the importance of ‫ﺳﻮرﯼ‬ ‫ﭼﻬﺎرﺷﻨﺒﻪ‬ /tʃa:ha:rʃaenbe su:ri:/ in the ST culture, the translator has added "The feast of chaharshanbehsuri, which is celebrated on the eve of the last Wednesday of the year" in the text.Along with paraphrasing this word, the translator has given some notes about Chaharshanbehsouri at the end of the text; in fact, he has intended to explain and introduce Chaharshanbehsouri to the readers of the TT.

Conclusion
It can be concluded from the data obtained that this translator has used almost all of Newmark's translation strategies for CSIs to render By the Pen successfully.From among Newmark's (1988) list of strategies, functional equivalent was the most frequently used strategy in translating the CSIs in By the Pen by Ghanoonparvar (1988), and modulation and paraphrase were the least frequently used strategies.Considering functional equivalent as the most frequently used strategy, other strategies used were synonymy, componential analysis, couplets, notes, through-translation, transference, naturalization, cultural equivalent, descriptive equivalent, shifts, compensation, recognized translation.Finally, modulation and paraphrase together occupied the same point at the end.On the basis of the results, from among Newmark's (1988) strategies, functional equivalent can be considered as the most effective strategy in translating literary folklore texts with a great number of CSIs because it makes such texts comprehensible for the readers of the TT by using English nonculture-specific generally used words and phrases.Moreover, By the Pen is a literary folklore book with a great number of CSIs.Accordingly, the information gained from this study can be helpful for translators, teachers of translation, and translation students in that it will help the improve their ability to translate with special attention to CSIs and will allow them to have a wider view when translating literary texts.Other researchers could also derive similar implications from most of the findings of this research.
execution of its leader Mazdak and many of his followers in 524.
Mirzâ: an abbreviated form of amirzâdeh [born of a prince] and can denote prince, as in its use in the name Iraj Mirza (1885Mirza ( -1925)), the Qâjâr poet and royal family member.It is also used as an honorific for males and denotes a secretary or scribe, and is used in the novel in this sense.

Seyyed:
The word can mean "sir" or "leader or" leader or refer to the Prophet Mohammad, but is generally used as a title to refer to any descendant of the Prophet.
Shâhi: Literally meaning "Pertaining to the Shâh."The term denotes an Iranian monetary unit in use during the Qâjâr era .In the early twentieth century it was equivalent to fifty dinârs.
Shams-e Tabrizi: "Shams [The Sun] of Tabriz," Rumi's inspirational beloved and guide from 1244 to 1248.For more, see Rumi, the full title of whose Divân is Divân-e Shams-e Tabrizi.A bilingual sampling of those poems appears in Selected Poems from the Dîvân is Divân-e Shams-e Tabrizi, A bilingual sampling of those poems

Naturalization:
It conforms the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then, to the normal morphology of the TL.Cultural Equivalent: It intends replacing a cultural word in the SL with an, although not accurate, TL word.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Frequency of use of all strategies applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar

Table 1 .
Examples of transference applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by GhanoonparvarNaturalization conforms the SL word, first to the normal pronunciation, then, to the normal morphology of the TL.

Table 2 .
Examples of naturalization applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar ‫ﺳﺎﻏﺮﯼ‬ /sa:qӕri:/ Shagreen ‫ﻃﻠﺴﻢ‬ /telesm/ TalismanCultural equivalent intends replacing a cultural word in the SL with an, although not accurate, TL word.Table 3. Examples of cultural equivalent applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar Strategy Source Text (Persian) Target Text (English) Cultural Equivalent ‫ﭼﺎدرﯼ‬ ‫ﺧﺎﻟﻪ‬ /xa:le tʃa:dɔri:/ Fuddy-duddy ‫ﺑﺰﻧﺪ‬ ‫ﭼﻮب‬ ‫را‬ ‫ﻣﻴﺮزا‬ ‫ﺳﻴﺎﻩ‬ ‫زاغ‬ /za:q s:ia:he mi:rza: ra: chu:b bezaenaed/ Keep an eye on Mirza ‫را‬ ‫رﺣﻤﺖ‬ ‫رﻳﻖ‬ ‫/ﺣﺎﺟﯽ‬ha:dӡi: ri:qe raehmaet ra: saer Keʃi:d / ‫ﮐﺸﻴﺪ‬ ‫ﺳﺮ‬ Haji kicked the bucket In functional equivalent, a culture-free word is used, sometimes a new specific term is used; therefore, it generalizes the SL word.

Table 4 .
Examples of functional equivalent applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar ru:zi: be dӕba:q kha:ne ӕʃ mi:ɔftӕd/ They would all be in need of his services one day

Table 5 .
Examples of descriptive equivalent applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar

Table 6 .
Examples of componential analysis applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar Table 7. Examples of synonymy applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar Strategy Source Text (Persian) Target Text (English) Synonymy ‫ﺁﻣﻴﺮزاﺑﻨﻮﻳﺲ‬ /a:mi:rza: benevi:s/ Scribe ‫رﻣﺎل‬ /rӕmma:l/ Fortune-teller ‫ﺧﺎﻧﻪ‬ ‫ﻣﮑﺘﺐ‬ /mӕktӕb xa:ane/ School Through-translation is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds.It can also be called: calque or loan translation.

Table 8 .
Examples of through-translation applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar

Table 9 .
Examples of shift or transposition applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar ‫ﻳﺰدﯼ‬ ‫ﭘﻴﭽﺎزﯼ‬ ‫ﭘﺎرﭼﻪ‬ /pa:rtʃeje pi: tʃa:zi:e jaezdi:/ Yazd-made clothing ‫زدن‬ ‫ﮔﺮدﻧﯽ‬ ‫ﭘﺲ‬ /paes gaerdaeni: zaedaen / Pushing and shoving Recognized translation occurs when the translator normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term.

Table 10 .
Examples of recognized translation applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by GhanoonparvarModulation occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the TL text in accordance with the current norms of the TL, because, the SL and the TL may be different in perspective.

Table 11 .
Examples of modulation applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by GhanoonparvarIn paraphrasing, the meaning of the CBT is explained.The explanation in paraphrasing is much more detailed than in descriptive equivalent.

Table 12 .
Examples of paraphrase applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar

Table 13 .
Examples of compensation applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar Notes, additions, and glosses are additional information which a translator may have to add to his version; the additional information that the translator adds are normally cultural.

Table 14 .
Examples of note applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar ‫ﺁﻗﺎ‬ /a:qa:/ Aqa ‫اﺑﺠﺪ‬ ‫ﺣﺮوف‬ /hɔru:fe ӕbdӡӕd/ Abjad letters Couplets occurs when the translator applies two different procedures together.

Table 15 .
Examples of couplets applied in translating CSIs in by the pen by Ghanoonparvar 'eh: the Congregational prayer leader or imam.New Year: called "Nowruz" [New Day] in Persian , the most traditional and joyous event in the Iranian solar calendar year.It begins on the vernal equinox, March 21 st usually, the very first day of spring.New Year's customs include anticipatory spring house cleaning, the purchase of new clothing, presentation of gifts by older to younger family members and of bonuses and special aydi [holiday gratuities] to employees and workers, a ritual New Year's fish and rice dinner, visits to the homes of friends and relatives, and much more.It is an extremely sociable time that officially begins on the last Tuesday evening before the New Year with a traditional gathering called Chahârshanbeh'suri (for more, see Chahârshanbeh' suri).The official end to "Nowruz" celebrations comes on the 13 th of Farvardin, the first month in the Iranian solar calendar, when everyone leaves home for a picnic or other outing because staying at home is assumed to bring bad luck.The old year's atmosphere thus leaves the home, and fresh new air will be brought back.thefamousvizier of the Saljuq Sultan Malekshâh and author of a famous treatise on politics available in English as Book of Government, translated by Hubert Darke (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1960).Night of Holy Strangers: the evening of the tenth day of Moharram called "Ashurâ."Formore,see'Ashurâ.: a "gently sloping tunnel dug horizontally into an alluvial fan until the water table is pierced.Water filters into the tunnel, runs down its gradual slope, and emerges on the surface as a stream."PaulW.English, City and Village in Iran (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), p. 30.For a diagram of a typical qanât, see ibid., p. 31.qerân: or riyâl, one-tenth of a tumân, a basic unit of Iranian currency.In the 19 th century, it was a silver coin, equal to one riyâl or 100 dinârs.Today, it is a term still synonymous with riyâl, which is valued officially at $ .07USA(October1988).Rostam: the most famous Iranian hero of legend, the leading heroic figure in Ferdowsi's Shâhnâmeh [Book of Kings].Among his many feats was the slaying of the White Demon.Rostam appears in English literature as one of the two protagonists in Matthew Arnold's famous Sohrab and Rustum (1853).The handiest English translation of Ferdowsi's Shâhnâmeh is Reuben Levy's synoptic The Epic of Kings (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967).thegreatest Sufi poet ever, whose Persian Masnavi-ye Ma'navi [Spiritual Couplets] and Divân (Collected Lyric Poems) are classics of gnostic verse.For more, see Talat S. Halman, "Jalâl al-Din Rumi," Persian Literature, edited by Ehsan Yarshater (Albany: SUNY for BibliothecaPersica, 1988), pp.190-213.