Thinking-for-Speaking of Chinese EFL Learners in the Use of Additional Expressions of Manner in the Expression of Motion Events

This study adopts Talmy’s (1985, 1991, 2000) theory of linguistic typology and Slobin’s(2003, 2004) hypothesis of Thinking-for-Speaking to investigate the use of additional expressions of Manner in the expression of Motion events by Chinese EFL learners in comparison with French EFL leaners. The aim is to find out the Thinking-for-Speaking effect in the acquisition of the English Motion event expressions for speakers with typologically different L1 background. It is revealed that Chinese EFL leaners benefit from the Thinking-for-Speaking in L1 compared with French EFL learners. Chinese Language teachers can emphasise the similarities between Chinese and English to enhance English learners’ acquisition of motion event expressions.


Introduction
The field of the relationship between language and thought has always been controversial.Three themes in this field have changed the attitude towards the language and thought relationship from decades of neglect to active investigation.First, analyses of the semantic systems of different languages as carried out by Talmy (1985) demonstrate that there are important differences between languages in the ways in which they carve up the world.Second, the shift away from the focus on colour to the study of other domains, such as Motion (e.g., Talmy 1985) and time (e.g., Boroditsky 2001), lead to the discovery of new evidence for the effects of language on cognition.Thirdly, Slobin (1996b) puts forward the "Thinking for Speaking" hypothesis, arguing that language may have an effect mainly on the processes of thinking for the purpose of speaking.
Therefore, the present study is based on this new research strand developed by Talmy (1985Talmy ( , 1991Talmy ( , 2000) ) and Slobin (2003Slobin ( , 2004)), which focuses on the way in which lexicalisation patterns in typologically different languages influence our way of verbalising Motion events.In particular the study is on the use of additional expressions of Manner in the expression of Motion events by Chinese EFL learners both in Chinese and in English with the aim to investigate the influence of native language in this process.Chinese English leaners' data is compared with French English learners' data because Motion is expressed in different ways in Chinese, English and French.

Theoretical Background
2. 1 Slobin's (1996b) "Thinking for Speaking" Hypothesis Slobin's (1996b) makes a link between Talmy's (1985Talmy's ( , 1991Talmy's ( , 2000) ) work on lexicalisation patterns in the languages of the world and the discussion about the relationship between language and thought.Slobin (1996b: 75) puts forward that "there is a special kind of thinking that is intimately tied to language, namely the thinking that is carried out, on-line, in the process of speaking."This is referred to as Thinking for Speaking hypothesis.Slobin (1996b: 76) claims that "Thinking for Speaking" involves picking those characteristics of objects and events that (a) fit some conceptualisation of the event, and (b) are readily encodable in the language.Slobin (1996b: 91) further proposes that a child learns particular ways of Thinking for Speaking in acquiring a native language and that "if our minds have been trained in taking particular points of view for the purposes of speaking, it is exceptionally difficult for us to be retrained."His study is based on the investigation of motion event expressions by children with different L1 background, which according to Talmy (1985Talmy ( , 1991Talmy ( , 2000)), belong to different language typologies.Therefore, it is crucial to review Talmy's linguistic typology of Motion events.Talmy's (1985Talmy's ( , 1991Talmy's ( , 2000) ) Linguistic Typology Talmy (1985: 60-61) defines a 'Motion event' as "a situation containing movement or the maintenance of a stationary location alike."According to him, a Motion event consists of four basic semantic components, which are Motion, Figure, Ground, and Path and two external components of Manner or of Cause.Talmy (1985: 128) defines Manner as: "a subsidiary action or state that a Patient manifests concurrently with its main action or state."Slobin's (2004: 255) definition of Manner is "a set of dimensions that modulate Motion, including motor pattern, rate, rhythm, posture, affect, and evaluative factors."Path is the core schema in his typology of Motion events.Talmy (1985Talmy ( , 2000) ) proposes a two-way typology differentiating satellite-framed languages from verb-framed languages on the basis of the characteristic pattern of encoding the information about the Path of movement."Languages that characteristically map the core schema into the verb will be said to have a framing verb and to be verb-framed languages"; and "languages that characteristically map the core schema onto the satellite will be said to have a framing satellite and to be satellite-framed languages" (Talmy 2000: 222).English, Russian, German, etc. are examples of satellite-framed languages and examples of verb-framed languages include Italy, French, Spanish, etc. Chinese is categorised as a satellite-framed language taking the second element in Chinese serial verb constucitons similar to English satellite.Slobin (2004: 228) proposes Chinese belongs to the third type, which is called "equipollently-framed languages" because "both Manner and Path are expressed by 'equipollent' elements."

The Study of the Use of Additional Expressions in the Expression of Motion Events
In addition to the use of Manner verbs to convey the information of Manner of movement, different languages also provide alternative ways to express such information, for example gerunds or adverbial expressions of Manner of Motion.Following Özçalışkan and Slobin (2003), adverbial expressions may include adverbs, adverbial phrases, and adverbial clauses.Writers of different languages all use alternative Manner expressions in Motion events.Özçalışkan and Slobin (2003: 266) list the following three alternative ways exploited by English and Turkish writers: (a) Adverbial expressions that describe or suggest Manner of movement, e.g.,evdenyelgibiçıktı "he exited from the house like the wind"; she walked in a crippled way.
(b) Descriptions of internal state or physical condition of a moving entity that allow one to infer Manner of movement, e.g., he was exhausted.
(c) Descriptions of features of the physical setting that could influence Manner of movement, e.g., the trail was steep and slippery.
Chen (2005) also analyses nine Chinese novels and compares the results with those of Özçalışkan and Slobin (2003).The frequencies of the adverbials used are 73, 93, and 98 in English, Turkish, and Chinese novels.The frequencies of descriptions are 34, 20, and 4. The totals of alternative ways of Manner expression are 107 in English novels, 113 in Turkish novels and 102 in Chinese novels.Özçalışkan and Slobin (2003: 268) argue that while all these three languages allow their speakers to express Manner in alternative ways with high frequency, these alternative expressions serve different functions in typologically different languages.They serve to augment Manner, which has already been expressed by Manner verbs in English and compensate for the sparse description of Manner in Spanish.Chen (2005) explains that these alternative ways of expressions serve to compensate for the use of more general Manner verbs in Chinese.Slobin (1997: 457) suggests that there are two tiers for the lexicon of Manner verbs.The first tier includes the neutral everyday Motion verbs, such as walk.The second tier includes the more expressive verbs, such as stride and tiptoe.Özçalışkan and Slobin (2003: 263) list the words to express the Motion of walk in nine English novels, which are walk, drift, loiter, march, pace, plod, rustle, shuffle, sift, skitter, sneak, stride, tiptoe, tramp, tread, wade and weave. Chen (2005: 91) reports that Chinese writers rely on alternative means to accompany the word 走zou3 "walk"，for example, 慢慢走 man4man4 zou3 "walk slowly", 霹雳闪电般地走 pi1li4 shan3dian4 ban1de0 zou3 "walk like thunderbolts and lightning".

The Present Study
The emphasis of the present study shifts from the first language expression of Motion events, which was the focus of most research in this field, to the comparison between first language expression and second language expression.The study investigates the influence of Thinking for Speaking among Chinese and French learners of English.Rather than discussing the expression of Motion expressions as a whole, or such aspects as Manner of movement, Path of movement, which are widely discussed, the study focuses on the use of additional expressions of Manner.We make comparisons in the following aspects.Firstly, we compare Chinese expressions with native speakers' English expressions in order to find out further evidence for the differences and similarities between Chinese and English in the use of additional expressions of manner.Secondly, we compare Chinese EFL learners' expressions in both Chinese and English in order to find out whether students are influenced by Thinking-for-speaking in L1.Thirdly, we compare Chinese English learners' and French English learners' data with an aim to find out the influence of typologically different L1 on L2.Therefore, the study helps to provide the direction for teachers in reconstructing Thinking-for-Speakingin language teaching.

Subjects
The subject include 30 native Chinese EFL learners with intermediate English proficiency (IC, mean age 19); 30 native Chinese EFL learners with high English proficiency (HC, mean age 22); 29 native English speakers as the control group (NS, mean age 23); and 24 French EFL learners as another control group (F, mean age 22).All the Chinese EFL learners are students at Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT), who come from all over China, but all speak Mandarin as the first language.The subjects who make up of the intermediate English level group are Non-English major first year students in BIT.
The French EFL learners have slightly different backgrounds and English efficiency.There are four year-four Erasmus students majoring in foreign languages, who spend one academic year at UWE.And at the time the data were collected, they had been in UWE for five months.Ten students are year one students from NEGOCIA, a French Business school.They were taking a three-month course in English as a second language in UWE when the data were collected.Another ten are students from the same French Business School but are not taking the three-month course in UWE.
The mean duration of EFL learning is about 8.3 years for Chinese EFL intermediate students, 10.3 for Chinese EFL high level students and 7.6 years for French EFL learners.The data from Chinese EFL learners were collected in BIT in China.The data from native English speakers were collected at UWE in UK.The data from the French EFL learners (four Erasmus students and ten French Business School students who took 3-months English course in UWE) were collected in the UK and in France.

Materials
The materials used include two father-and-son comics (Plauen 1976), which will be called the Bank story (story one) and the Dog story (story two).There are two additional frog stories (Mayer 1969): Frog, where are you?(story three) and Frog goes to dinner (story four).
Frog, where are you?hasbeen analysed in many Motion event research in many languages including English and Chinese (e.g., Berman and Slobin 1994, Slobin1996a, 1997, 2000, Chen 2005).This material is adopted for the comparison with previous research.Frog goes to dinner (Mayer 1969) is a book which depicts a lot of movements of the frog in the restaurant so that it provides an excellent material for the description of Motion events for every subject.Father-and-son comic strip about a Bank story (Plauen 1976) has been used for the investigation of language proficiency and Motion events descriptions by several researchers, e.g., Daller, Van Houtand Treffers-Daller (2003); Treffers- Daller, Özsoy and Van Hout (2007).

Tasks
Each subject was presented with a task explanation written in English to ensure every student obtained exactly the same instructions.The subjects were informed that they were going to tell stories based on materials from Mayer (1969) and Plauen (1976), and that these would be tape-recorded.The subjects were expected to tell the stories in as much detail as possible.
The native English speakers told all the four stories based on the materials in English.Ideally, there are four stories from each participant.In fact, some recordings are inaudible due to recording qualities so that there are 28 Bank stories, 27 Dog stories, 28 stories of Frog goes to dinner and 29 stories of Frog, where are you?For the current study only the English version of the story Frog goes to dinner as told by French EFL learners was analysed.There are altogether 24 Frog goes to dinner stories from French EFL learners.
The data collection was more complicated for the Chinese EFL learners.We gave ananonymous number to each subject anddecided to split the learner groups in half.The first half of the participants of both HC group and IC group, that is HC201-HC215 and IC301-IC315 told the story Frog, where are you?and the Dog story in English; Frog goes to dinner and Bank story in Chinese.The other half, that is HC216-HC230 and IC316-IC330 tell the story Frog, where are you?andDogstory in Chinese; Frog goes to dinner and Bank story in English.Ideally, there are four stories from each participant of all groups.In fact, some recordings are inaudible due to recording qualities so that there are 28 Bank stories, 27 Dog stories, 28 stories of Frog goes to dinner and 29 stories of Frog, where are you?fromNS.For the current study only the English version of the story Frog goes to dinner as told by French EFL learners was analysed.There are altogether 24 Frog goes to dinner stories from French EFL learners.There are 60 Chinese stories from Chinese speakers for each storywhenthe HC group and IC group are combined.There are 15 stories for all the four tasks from both HC group and IC group.

Transcriptions and Coding
The stories were first tape-recorded and then transcribed by the investigator.To ensure the accuracy of the transcriptions, all these transcriptions were checked by three other native or fluent speakers of both French and English.Then the data were transformed into CHAT format, the transcription and coding format developed by MacWhinney (2000).The results were subsequently analysed with the help of statistical tools.

Use of Additional Expressions of Mannerin the Overall Encoding of Motion Events
Firstly we provide an overall description of the use ofadditional expressions of Manner in Motion event expressions in Frog goes to dinner for a comparison across the three languages of Chinese, English, and French.Moreover, the data from other three stories, i.e.Bank story, Dog story, and Frog, where are you?are also frequently quoted and analysed either for a comparison with previous research or to illustrate that some phenomenon is prevalent irrespective of the tasks.So that dog gallop DUR dash enter river in "So the dog dashed into the river running." In addition to the use of Manner verbs and Manner adjuncts, there are some descriptions that contribute to the expression of Manner of Motion.For example in (2), there is a description of the body of the saxophonist who is alarmed by the sudden appearance of the frog.Since his body is 笨重 ben4zhong4 "heavy," the Manner of his Motion could not be swift at all.And this Manner can be further depicted by the use of the adverb 慢慢 man4 man4 "slowly".This is similar to Spanish, where movement is implied from the static description of scenes (Slobin1996a).As they are very rare in the present oral narratives, the descriptions are not analysed further.
He very alarmed, heavy body slowly AdvMtowards backwards move DUR "He was very alarmed and his heavy body moved backwards slowly." The use of adverbials, which include adverbs, adverbial phrases and adverbial clauses are investigated in all four stories.(3a) and ( 3b) are examples of the use of adverbs to accompany Manner verbs.飞fei1 "fly" is a Manner verb in some situations, but it is an adverb to accompany the Manner verb 奔 ben1 "gallop" here in (3a).It is more common that adverbs have the adverbial marker 地 de0, as 匆匆地 cong1cong1de0 "hurriedly" in (3b).风 风火火 feng1 feng1 huo3 huo3 "like wind and fire" is an adverbial phrase to accompany Manner verb in (3c).In addition, adverbials can accompany Path verbs, as are illustrated in (3d) and (37e).
(3) a. 突然一个戴着帽子的男人飞奔而来.(HC 204) Tu1 ran2 yi1 ge4 dai4 zhe0 mao4 zi0 de0 nan2ren2 fei1 ben1 er2 lai2.stride DUR square pace one shake one rock AdvM leave PFV seaside "Then Lei Lei, his daddy and Xiao Mi left the seaside with leisure pace complacently in spite of the old man's surprising expression." There are 221 adverbials in the four Chinese stories, with 159 accompanying Manner verbs and 62 accompanying Path verbs, which are 72% and 28% respectively.It is interesting to investigate the adverbials to company 走 zou3 "walk" by Chinese speakers to express the different ways of walking, which are listed in (4).
(7) (6 types) 漠然地离开 mo4ran2 de0 li2kai1 "leave indifferently", 骄傲地离开 jiao1ao4 de0 li2kai1 "leave proudly", 迈着方步离开 mai4zhe0fang1bu4 li2kai1 "leave with leisure pace",一摇一摆地离开 yi1yao2yi1bai3 de0 li2kai1"leave complacently", 愤 怒 地 离 开 fen4nu4 de0 li2kai1 "leave angrily", 闷 闷 不 乐 地 离 开 men4men4bu1le4 de0 li2kai1 "leave sulkily " 4.1.2Additional Expressions of Manner in EE (English Stories of Native English Speakers) Four Manner adjuncts are used in EE1, one in EE2, seven in EE3 and EE4 respectively.Instead of using a Manner verb as the main verb, the subject chooses the deictic Motion verb come or go as the main verb and the Manner of Motion is expressed in the adjunct, such as the examples in ( 8) and ( 9). ( 8) The man continues to hit the robber and in the meantime, the bank manager comes racing in and there is no danger anymore.(NS 309) (9) Unfortunately for the passerby, he had to take off all of his clothes and go wading into the lake to get his stick back.(NS 328) Native English speakers use adverbs and adverbial phrases to accompany both Manner verbs, as in (10a) and (10b), and Path verbs, as (10c) and (10d).From ( 13) to ( 14) are the adverbials used in the four stories together with the Manner verbs and Path verbs they accompany respectively.
(13) Run in a hurry, run/ come up to (somebody) /escape /jump/swim quickly, run/swim fast, run angrily, run immediately, jump stealthily, jump secretly, climb quietly (14) Go straightly, leave happily, leave unhappily, flee/ go to (something)/ follow quietly, get (into somewhere) after an hour of walking, fall directly, go (into) go off /leave /come up to/ escape/quickly, go secretly, go silently (into) Straightly in ( 15) is an example of a non-targetlike use of the adverb.
(15) Then the father went straightly.(HC 219) The most frequently used adverbs among all the additional expressions of Manner is quickly with a frequency of sixteen, followed by fast, with a frequency of seven.Examples in ( 16) and ( 17) are adverbials accompanying Manner verbs and Path verbs respectively.
(16) Run horribly, swim/ run/ jump quickly, jump right away, jump hurriedly, run crazily, run fast, climb slowly, climb quietly (17) Go further, go far, return happily, come to (some place) silently The most frequently used adverb is fast, with a frequency of six, followed by quickly, with a frequency of five.

Additional Expressions of Manner in EF (English Stories of French EFL Learners)
Examples in ( 18) and ( 19) are the only two cases that French EFL learners express Manner by alternative ways.Quickly is the only adverb in this story.In (18), it accompanies get, which can be taken as the equivalent of go in such situation and in ( 19), it accompanies another Path verb leave.
(18) So she leaves she get out quickly.(F 610) (19) They are really disturbed and disappointing and in fact the man wants to bring the frog that she leaves quickly.(F 610) Chi-Squaretests show that neither high level nor intermediate level Chinese EFL learners differ significantly from native English speakers in the four stories (EHC1234 vs EE1234 χ2(1)= .271,p=.603 , EIC1234 vs EE1234 χ2(1)= 1.618, p=.203).In addition, Chinese EFL learners of both levels do not differ from each other significantly (χ2(1) =3.355, p=.067).Figure 1 represents the results more directly.It can support the expectation that Chinese EFL learners of both levels experience positive transfer in the use of additional expressions of Manner.

Analysis and Discussion
The present study finds that additional expressions of Manner are used more frequently in Chinese than in English.There are more cases of adverbials in Chinese than in Englishin all four stories.Moreover, there are more alternative expressions which accompany Manner verbs in Chinese than in English.The previous study 1 = EHC1234, 2 =EIC1234 3=EE1234

Alternatives with Manner verbs
Alternatives without Manner verbs reveals that adverbials are used in 98% of all clauses which express Motion in the nine Chinese novels Chen and Guo (2008) analysis.The corresponding percentages are 73% and 93% for English and Turkish respectively (Özçalışkan&Slobin 2003).In addition, alternative expressions accompany Manner verbs in all Motion clauses in Chinese (Chen &Guo 2008), whereas this is the case in only 73% of clauses in English and 39% in Turkish (Özçalışkan&Slobin 2003).The present study confirms that the additional expressions of Manner in English and Chinese are more likely to accompany Manner verbs.It also confirms that the alternative expressions in Chinese can compensate for the less fine-grained Manner verbs, whereas in English, they function to extend the elaboration of the fine-grained Manner verbs (Özçalışkan&Slobin 2003, Chen 2005, Chen&Guo 2008).
Secondly, French EFL learners hardly make use of alternative expressions, while Chinese EFL learners rely on these more frequently.Chinese EFL learners mainly use alternative expressions of Manner in combination with Manner verbs.Since the value is so low in French data, that is, only two adverbials are used to accompany Path verbs, the difference between the L2 productions of Chinese EFL learners and French EFL learners is obvious.
It is expected that positive transfer plays a role in the use of additional expressions of Manner.The result shows that different from French EFL learners who use additional expressions with Path verbs, Chinese EFL learners of both high level and intermediate level use alternative expressions to accompany Manner verbs.It is interesting to notice that high level learners use more alternative expressions of Manner than native English speakers do.This shows that high level Chinese learners of English are more likely to use additional means to give a vivid description of Manner of Motion.
There maybe some thinking for Speaking in the stage of microplanning to adapt the information to be expressed in words or structures available in the languages.As a satellite-framed language, English is a high Manner salience language so that Manner is readily codable, and there is a rich Manner verb lexicon.In comparison, because the second-tier Manner verbs in Chinese are not as rich as in English, in some situations, it is difficult for Chinese speakers to use second-tier Manner verbs to express Manner of Motion.Therefore, Chinese speakers use first-tier Manner verbs to express Motion events and sometimes use additional expressions of Manner to compensate for the lack of specific information.It proves that "if our minds have been trained in taking particular points of view for the purposes of speaking, it is exceptionally difficult for us to be retrained."(Slobin 1996b: 91)

Conclusion
The study provides evidence for Slobin's (1996a: 195) claim that "the form and content of descriptions of journeys are heavily shaped by the typology of lexicalization patterns."It can be claimed that in the process of Thinking for Speaking, the codability and easy accessibility in Chinese lead Chinese speakers to compensate for the lack of rich first-tier Manner verbs with the use of additional expressions of Manner.The present study can also have pedagogical significance in EFL teaching, as it will show teachers which areas of English are difficult for learners.It is interesting and beneficial to investigate which teaching methodologies can help learners of English to make improvements in the acquisition of Motion event expressions 4.1.1Additional Expressions of Manner in CC (Chinese Stories of Chinese EFL Learners)Manner adjuncts are used to accompany Manner verbs in Chinese stories, but these are very rare.(1a) and (1b) are the only two cases.The Manner adjuncts and the Manner verbs are always combined with a durative aspectual marker 着 zhe0, which occurs in between.(1)a. 突然一个戴帽子的大汉奔跑着闯进了银行.(HC 203) Tu1 ran2 yi1 ge4 dai4 mao4 zi0 de0 da4 han4 ben1 pao3 zhe0 chuang3 jin4 le0 yin2hang2.Suddenly one CL with hat Nom big man gallop DUR Rush enter PFV bank "Suddenly a big man with a hat rushed into the bank running."b. 于是那狗奔跑着冲进河里.(IC 129) Yu2 shi4 na4 gou3 ben1 pao3 zhe0 chong1 jin4 he2 li3.

(
10) a.The frog quickly leapt away, seeing a plate of lettuce that he thought he could hide under.(NS 328) b.Following that, the bees are quite agitated by the, by what had happened by their home getting crushed Onto the ground, and start swarming out at a fast rate into an angry cloud.(NS 336) c.Off balance, the trumpeter fell comically into the drum.(NS 306) d.The dog follows his owner with complete loyalty.(NS 336) 19 adverbials are used in the four stories of native English speakers.There are 13 (68%) adverbials accompanying Manner verbs and 6 (32%) accompanying Path verbs.The adverbials of each category are summarised in (11) and (12).The adverbials (together with Motion verbs) used to accompany Manner verbs include: (11) Jump eagerly, jump/ leap high, jump promptly, fly happily, creep sneakily, leap quickly, swarm (out) at a fast rate, climb higher to the sky, climb gingerly, run fast The adverbials accompanying Path verbs are: (12) Fall comically, go kindly, go happily, follow with (complete) loyalty 4.1.3Additional Expressions of Manner in EHC (English Stories of High Level Chinese EFL Learners) 40 adverbial expressions are used in EHC1234, 23 accompanying Manner verbs, 17 accompanying Path verbs.The percentages of each category are 57.5% and 42.5%.4.1.4Additional Expressions of Manner in EIC (English Stories of Intermediate Level Chinese EFL Learners) Adverbials are used in 21 cases, with 17 (81%) accompanying Manner verbs, four (19%) accompanying Path verbs in EIC1234.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Use of additional expressions of Manner in EHC1234, EIC1234, and EE1234