A Model of Reading Teaching for University EFL Students : Need Analysis and Model Design

This study designed a model of teaching reading for university EFL students based on the English curriculum at the Faculty of Languages and Literature and the concept of the team-based learning in order to improve the reading comprehension of the students. What kind of teaching model can help students to improve their reading comprehension? The steps of this developmental survey consist of need analysis, design, and model development. This paper conducted need and conceptual analysis among the reading lecturers to generate a model of teaching. In the model development and implementation, instructional materials were designed to try out the teaching model with treatment (X) and observation (O) to see the effectiveness of the model. The instructional materials consider the required and selected reading materials, team-based learning, and weekly reading tasks. The instructional materials were reviewed and validated by the reading lecturers. The instructional design consisting of pre-reading activity outside of the classroom before coming to the class, practice in group of five to seven students in each group in the classroom, and class discussions was based on learning objective, pedagogical aspects, the language competence, self-selected reading materials, and required reading materials. The result of reading test indicated that the teaching model improves the reading comprehension of the students.


Introduction
Reading course is a compulsory subject for students of English department at the Faculty of Languages and Literature at the State University of Makassar.Reading course is a course that is expected to help the reading comprehension of other courses.It means students should be able to read different texts in literature, science, social studies, etc. in order to transfer the information about modern science or technology from other countries.They have to learn to read and have to read to learn.Learning to read relates to reading for meaning or comprehension.Reading for meaning is an important attempt to comprehend texts, and reading to learn refers to reading for remembering or studying (Hamra, 2003).
The reading test results of the final semester and TOEFL prediction of the first semester students indicate that the reading ability of the students is low.The reading comprehension of Indonesian students needs improvement (Kweldju, 2001, Syatriana, 1998;Mardiana, 1993;Hamra, 1993Hamra, , 1996aHamra, , 1996b;;Hamra & Syatriana, 2010); it is far from the expectation of the competency-based curriculum for higher education (Competency-Based Curriculum, 2008).The reading difficulties come from different sources: poor interpretation of the texts, poor vocabulary, the use of inappropriate reading strategies, and poor grammatical competence (Behroozizad & Bakhtiyarzadeh, 2012).
Many EFL students failed to go to foreign universities because of the low score of their English proficiency test.The test scores do not reach the minimal requirement of passing grade of the universities.The improvement of reading comprehension of the students should be the focus of teaching and learning process in increasing the human quality (Hamra & Syatriana, 2010).Students with good reading skills will influence the reading comprehension.
Reading lecturers who are in charge in improving the reading comprehension of the students need to know the nature of reading, reading process, and reading strategies.The reading lecturers should transfer this knowledge to the students in order to help them read texts.They play an important part in the teaching and learning process, and without them teaching and learning processes do not occur.
Many research results indicate that the lecturers' role is an essential part in forming students to be good readers.Malmquist (1973, p. 142) stated that "Studies indicate that the teacher is a more important variable in reading instruction than are the teaching methods and instructional materials."Mackey (1975) argued that a teacher plays an important role in the teaching and learning process to get the learning objectives as stated that the effectiveness of the method is in the hand of the teacher.Thus, reading lecturers have to understand the nature of reading teaching, methods of teaching reading, learning and teaching theories, language theories, and the pedagogical aspects of teaching and learning.
In solving the learning outcome of the students, the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture has published a guideline book to improve the learning outcome of students through the Competency-Based Curriculum (2008)) at the higher education.The curriculum has offered a number of teaching models: small group discussion, demonstration, discovery learning, self directed learning, cooperative learning, collaborative learning, contextual instruction, project-based learning, and problem-based learning) that can be implemented by the lecturer in the class.
Many writers have classified reading components.Monroe & Rogers (1964) proposed word perception, comprehension, reaction, and assimilation.Dechant (1982) stated reading as a sensory and perceptual process.Kennedy (1974) classified into five headings: foundation, background, word recognition, comprehension, and utilization.There are two catagories involve in reading (Smith & Dechant, 1961;Dechant, 1982): (1) reading as a process of decoding where students are trained to pronounce the printed words, and (2) reading to find meaning where the focus of reading is for comprehension (reading for comprehension).Actually, there are different definitions of reading, most teachers agree that the reading process involves; (1) letters and word recognition, (2) comprehension of the texts, and (3) the comprehension integration from the new texts to the readers own knowledge or comprehension to create other new information (Hamra & Syatriana, 2010).The purpose of reading is students interact with the printed materials to get appropriate meaning (Ling, 2012).In this case, the readers have to observe, interprete, and evaluate the printed pages.The process of getting meaning may be different among readers because of the previous knowledge and the purpose of reading the texts.Proses of reading involving observation, prediction, interpretation, and evaluation happens quickly in the readers' mind to get meaning.The reading duration is not very important, but the most important aspect is the active participation of the readers in getting meaning from the text.To participate actively in the reading process (Lapp & Flood, 1986) gave some suggestions, among others: (1) knowledge and the implementation of the reading strategies, (2) purposes of reading, (3) reading activities that can increase reading motivation and interest of the students.
Reading for comprehension involves the relationship between meaning and word symbol, the choice of appropriate meaning based on the context, the organization of meaning, and the ability to give arguments and catch ideas.Reading which means comprehension is actually a process of thinking to get appropriate meaning (Dallmann et al., 1978); Harris & Sipay,1980;Smith & Robinson, 1980).The comprehension depends on the basic cognitive knowledge, previous knowledge, vocabulary command, knowledge of concepts, and language knowledge (Syatriana & Hamra, 2011).Lapp & Flood (1986) stated that comprehension had three levels: (1) literal comprehension (reading on the lines), (2) inferential comprehension (reading between the lines), (3) critical comprehension (reading beyond the lines).Lanier & Davies (1972) added one more reading level: creative comprehension that is the ability to apply information and respond emotionally.
In the literal level of comprehension, the readers are expected to express the core message of the text; Some skills that are necessary for this level include following directions, remembering facts, recognizing the main ideas, and knowing the organization of the texts.In the inferential level, readers are expected to integrate information and draw conclusion or inference, and they need to know not only what the writers write but also what they mean.Herber (1978) argued that literal level of comprehension identifies the most important information, while inferential level observes the relationship of information then make inferences based on the relationships.In the critical comprehension the readers are expected to use the current information to create new information or ideas.Readers are reading beyond the lines to find the possible new information as Bruner 1961, p. 21) stated that the idea or new concepts "is in its essence a matter of rearranging or transforming evidence in such a way that one is enable to go beyond the evidence so reassembled to additional new insight."Good readers have high efficacy belief to control word meaning, phrases, and sentences to get appropriate meaning from the texts.
Students are interested and motivated to read because of the interesting and the motivating teaching and learning process; on the other hand, the lack of interest and motivation of students to read, because teachers do not give students opportunity to help and support one to each other.Learning support can be from students' friend or from the learning team.Teachers should support or maintain the students' awareness to participate in reading by preparing different types of appropriate reading strategies.Group work may happen at home, school, or in the work place; it is part of our daily life (Smit, 2004).Teachers at school arrange their students to work in group; they expect them to learn in group setting for solving learning problem and obtaining the learning objectives.Being a good reader takes time; it needs a good learning process with a number of exercises and a lot of time.Communicating through texts involves a process of thinking in a short time where the readers have to evaluate, interpret, predict, and conclude.Atkinson (1985) classified readers into three categories: (1) independent readers, (2) dependent readers, (3) frustrated readers.The independent readers can answer comprehension questions correctly between 80% to 100%.The dependent readers can answer comprehension questions correctly between 60% to 79%.The frustrated readers only answer comprehension questions correctly below 60%.
Team-based learning (TBL) is a well-defined teaching strategy developed by Dr. Larry K. Michaelsen (Hudes, 2011).TBL is a teaching procedure for developing proficiency of students and increasing the learning quality.In the implementation in the classroom, a lecturer can conduct multiple small groups.Sweet & Michaelsen (2011) and Michaelsen et al. (2008) presented four steps in using this strategy: (1) group, a group of different students in terms of skills and background, and this group must be managed well, (2) accountability, students must be responsible for the quality of the individual and group work, (3) feedback, students need feedback, (4) assignment design, group assignments of five to seven students should be designed to promote learning.Parveen & Rajan (2012, p. 174) stated that learning activities "provide an opportunity for the students to gauge their own performances and the difficulty faced during these projects."Thompson, et al. (2007) stated that TBL in its implementation had three phases.In the first phase, learners read and study materials independently outside of the class.During the second phase, learners complete an individual readiness assurance test (IRAT) to assess their basic understanding of the facts or concepts.Pre-assigned teams of 5-7 learners re-take the same test after the IRAT; then, a consensus is formed about each answer (group readiness assurance test-GRAT.Students can move to the next phase if they have mastered core concepts in phase 1 and phase 2. In phase 3, learners work in their team in the class with the same problem at the same time.TBL allows a single teacher to manage small groups at the same time in the class; it is a strategy that promotes learning and teamwork skill development.TBL is a group of students who share the same emotions, purposes, and beliefs to obtain the learning objectives.
The TBL for reading course applied in this study is slightly different from TBL conducted at many American universities, especially its stages.TBL applied in this study consists of three stages.In the first stage, the students have to read individually the required instructional reading materials and their selected materials of interest outside of the classroom.The required material is prepared by the teacher in a course book, and selected material of interest is prepared by the students.It is expected that they can answer these comprehension questions, and they can share orally their own material in the small group.In the classroom, the small groups of five to seven students of different achievements from low to high answer the comprehension questions and discuss/share orally the ideas of their selected materials.Each group reads the same topics at the same time conducted by a group leader.Thus, there are two discussions in the first stage: discussions on the required and on the selected materials.The main purpose of selected reading materials is to increase reading participation and the global knowledge of the students.Every student in a small group has to share the ideas, concepts, or experience in the small group.In the second stage, the group has to reflect their readings orally as achievement test and rephrase them as their achievement test.In the third stage, all groups come to the class, and one group from the small groups has to present their work and reactions to readings.The discussion in the class is led by the lecturer.The three stages take about 50 minutes.
TBL facilitates discussions to help students develop their insights related to the discussing topics.The discussion will be effective if the room is attractive for learning, lecturers prepare preview questions related to the topics, all students are reinforced to participate in the discussion, and the lecturers lead the class discussion to develop the students' ideas.TBL is pedagogical approach that focuses on the individual and small group works in a classroom.
The purpose of this study was to design a model of teaching reading for EFL students based on the implementation of team-based learning and the teaching objective of the English curriculum at the faculty of languages and literature.The model design considered the students' need, the competency-based curriculum, linguistic performance and competence, and pedagogical competence.
The described problem faced by the students presented some research questions: (1) What kind of model of teaching reading that can improve the reading comprehension of the students?(2) What are the appropriate reading materials for the students?What is the reading achievement of the students toward the use of the teaching model?

Method
This developmental research was modified from Gustafson (1981), and the procedures are in figure 1.
Need analysis was conducted to know the reading proficiency of the students and their need in terms of the reading teaching model.

2.
Design of reading teaching model.

3.
Model development through reading instructional materials.

4.
Implementation with evaluation (formative and summative).The model design had been tried out through formative evaluation, and it was validated by the experts in their field.The model had been tried out in one reading class to see the effectiveness of the model.Since this is a multiyear research the summative evaluation will be conducted in another research.
Need analysis tried to find out the English reading proficiency of the students, the students' need in terms of the reading proficiency, teaching model, and instructional materials to improve the reading comprehension of the students.Quantitative and qualitative data were collected to explore the reading proficiency, the students' need, and the instructional materials.Punch (1988) stated that quantitative approach administered to see the effectiveness of the teaching model, and qualitative approach implemented to describe the students' interest toward the use of the model.
The instructional model design considered the teaching objectives, required texts about content areas or subject matters, self-selected reading materials based on the students' interest as the reading tasks, and team-based learning.The model design was followed by a model development by preparing instructional reading materials.This prototype model was tried out for improvements in terms of content, selection, graduation, and teaching strategies.The development was related to the instructional materials and the competency-based curriculum.The designed instructional materials were implemented in reading class followed by formative evaluation.
In the implementation, formative evaluation of the instructional material and design was controlled in terms of procedures, content of the presentation: listening, speaking, reading, and writing, linguistic competence, teaching methods, and the educational unit level curriculum.Tryout of the instructional model was conducted at a reading class three times during the first semester with one shot case study: X O (X= treatment of the model application, and O = Observation through a reading test (Mason & Bramble, 1978).The method determined the selection, graduation, presentation, and repetition to make the use of the language (Mackey, 1975).Observation

Summative
Test was administered to see teaching performance and reading test was conducted to see the reading achievement.Summative evaluation will be conducted later for another research.Technique of collecting data involved: (1) reading test, (2) focus group discussion, and (3) interview.In the development process, action research approach with continuous evaluations and reflections was applied to get a good model of teaching reading.

Need Analysis
The reading proficiency of the subjects based on the reading section of the TOEFL prediction test is categoried low with the average score is 56.Class observation indicated that most students liked working together to answer comprehension questions.It took time to answer all questions or exercises, so it needs additional time.The focus group discussion argued that the students need to start learning before coming to the class.The students had very limited time to do all exercises.Class interaction should be varied to promote learning.The students need to do the exercises both individually and in small groups in the classroom.Team-based learning is an active learning method that promotes learning and social interaction among the students (Sisk, 2011).
Need analysis suggested two types of teaching materials for this study: (1) required reading materials of different content areas prepared by the lecturers, (2) selected reading materials of different interests of the students as their weekly reading tasks.The team-based learning has three stages: (1) pre reading activity outside of the classroom, students have to read the reading materials, (2) work in a team of 5-7 students to answer and discuss the reading materials in the small group in the classroom, and (3) class discussion, a member of the team presents his/her work, and the other groups respond the team work.
The focus group discussion conducted by the reseachers and the reading lecturers in the need analysis related to the course of Reading I for the first semester students of English department produced a teaching and learning program as in the following.

Teaching and Learning Program
Course: Reading 1 The teaching and learning program of Reading I consists of course description, course objectives, required instructional materials, supplementary materials, and lecture contract.

1) Course Description
This course is intended to provide students comprehension of text types (narrative, descriptive, analytical exposition, hortatory exposition, spoof, recount, explanation, report, discussion, procedure, anecdote, review, news item) from various reading sources.This course includes levels of reading comprehension (literal, inferential, applied) in reading the texts and leads students to be successful in reading.This course helps students to comprehend intermediate text types, to understand different sources of intermediate texts, to analyze the structure of the texts, and to increase the students' vocabularies 2) Course Objectives By the end of this course, the students will be able to identify different kinds of text, comprehend the types of intermediate texts, understand the structure of text types and to increase the vocabularies, reflect the text orally, rephrase the text in the written form, students are able to comprehend different kinds of intermediate text types, and students are able to understand the structure of text types and to increase the vocabularies.

4) Supplementary Materials
Interesting selected materials for students as reading tasks for weekly presentation.

1) Specific Objectives
At the end of this course students are able to find out the main idea of the text, answer literal, interpretive, and critical comprehension questions, get some ideas from the texts, reflect the texts, get lessons from the instructional materials, write summaries of the texts, make outlines of the texts, write notes from texts, analyze the text structure, and increase the vocabularies.
2) Teaching Strategies: Team-based Learning a) Giving preview questions.

b)
Answer the comprehension questions individually outside, c) Work in groups of 5-7students in the classroom.

d)
Weekly reading presentation from each group.
e) Class discussion.

Model Design and Development
The focus group discussion in the need analysis and the previous descriptions of teaching strategies of the reading course produced a map or model of teaching of Reading as in figure 2:  6) Weekly reading task is a reading assignment that students have to report and discuss weekly to increase the reading participations and global knowledge.The instructional reading materials with good reading interaction in the classroom can improve the reading motivation of the students (Sonnenschein & Munsterman (2002).Cox & Guthri (2001) argued that more readings for enjoyment contribute the students' reading achievement and knowledge of the world.
In implementing the model, instructional reading materials for Reading I were designed to see the effectiveness of the teaching model with three teaching stages: pre-reading outside of the classroom individually (both the required and selected reading materials), small group discussion of five to seven students in the classroom, and class discussions to reflect all reading material presented in the small group discussion.The model had been tried out with action research approach to get appropriate teaching model.Each tryout followed by discussions based on the teaching problem faced by the students and the way to solve the problem.The first tryout indicated that not many students did outside reading or pre-reading activity.The class discussions were not satisfied because not all students participate in the small group discussion.The second tryout presented that the class interaction was improved and reading materials were the students' level.They could answer the questions from the other team.The third tryout indicated that almost all students did outside reading and more students participated in the small group discussion and in the class discussion.The final tryout presented revised instructional materials and design in each lesson.
The instructional model design consists of: (A) Pre-reading outside, (B) Reading, each group reads, discusses, and answers the comprehension questions in the classroom with different text types in terms of science texts, literature, etc. (B) Reflection, students reflect orally the ideas, concepts, knowledge, or other information for their reading evaluation, and students reproduce the text in the written form to be submitted to the instructor, (C) Class discussion, students share or discuss different topics of required reading materials and the topics of students' interest led by the lecturers.
The teaching model was developed by designing instructional materials (Jolly & Bolitho 1998), and the result of the instructional development was presented in the following layout (read, reflect & rephrase, and discuss), as an example of instructional material in one lesson: A. Read Read the following texts (teacher should ask students to read individually before coming to the class) and answer the questions.In the classroom, you answer and discuss the questions after the texts in your group.Reflect orally to the other groups.Each group has to rephrase the text in the written form, and then submit it to your teacher.
1. Descriptive Text a.The Amazing Taj Mahal in India Taj Mahal is regarded as one of the eight wonders of the world.It was built by a Muslim Emperor Shah Jahan in the memory of his dear wife at Agra.Taj Mahal is a Mausoleum that houses the grave of queen Mumtaz Mahal.The mausoleum is a part of a vast complex comprising of a main gateway, an elaborate garden, a mosque (to the left), a guest house (to the right), and several other palatial buildings.The Taj is at the farthest end of this complex, with the river Jamuna behind it.
The Taj stands on a raised, square platform (186 x 186 feet) with its four corners truncated, forming an unequal octagon.The architectural design uses the interlocking arabesque concept, in which each element stands on its own and perfectly integrates with the main structure.It uses the principles of self-replicating geometry and a symmetry of architectural elements.The majority of us claim that we do not have time for exercise.We feel too busy to do that.However, many experts said that exercise has great role in making our body healthy.Being physically active offers many advantage.In physical reword, exercise can reduce weight then our body will become fitter.Exercise is also believed to reduce stress levels, improve sleep patterns, and reduce the risk of heart disease, diabetes and some forms of cancer.Beside physical advantage, exercise also brings good effects mentally.Due to the fitter body, exercise can make us feel refreshed and happy then we can increase our life quality and expectancy.
How can we do exercise while we are busy?Such question is commonly found among us.Actually exercise can be done in simple ways.We can go walking while shopping.In the office we can take stair rather than lift to run up and down.Or we can go cycling while enjoy the leisure time.
Over all, doing exercise is little bit difficult in busy life but the little bit of exercise will help better.

C. Class Discussion
1. Share some important ideas from the text reflection 2. Share some important ideas from your weekly reading task

English Reading Achievement
At the end of the course a reading comprehension test from TOEFL practice test 1, section 3 (Phillips, 1996, p. 31-35) was administered to see the reading achievement of the students.The multiple choice test was modified into an essay test, and the test result indicated that most of the students can answer the comprehension questions perfectly with a mean score (M = 86).
The result of validation of the teaching model through focus group discussion among senior reading lecturers stated that the model was good to apply in the teaching of reading for EFL students.The students were expected to read outside of the classroom was a good idea before coming to the small group discussion in the classroom.The class observation conducted by the researcher indicated that all students were ready to learn in the small group discussion; they participated actively in the class; they were interested in the use of the learning and teaching activities.

Conclusion and Suggestion
The teaching model based on the team-based learning involves an instructional design with three teaching stages: reading outside, small group discussion, and class discussion.The teaching model is called a Model of Teaching Reading (MTR) for EFL university students.
The MTR is an English reading teaching model which considers the required reading materials prepared by the lecturers, self-selected reading materials based on the students' interest, the team-based learning, and the evaluation to see the reading achievement at the end of a lesson.The selected reading materials as the weekly reading task for the students are expected to increase the reading participation of the students.
The MTR with its instructional design promotes learning, class interactions, and learning achievement of the students.Class interaction in the form of discussion promotes not only reading but also speaking ability of the students.
Reading lecturers or instructors can use this reading teaching model as an alternative teaching reading method to increase the reading comprehension of students and improve the social interaction of them in the classroom and outside of the classroom in their society.
Teachers can design their own reading instructional materials based on this MTR.They are expected to use the three stages: reading outside, small group discussion, and class discussion to promote learning of the students.This model controls the students' reading participation to increase the reading comprehension through the weekly reading task presented by the students in the class.
the First Semester Students of English Department consists of Chapter I. Introduction, Chapter II.Text Types, Chapter III.Short Stories, and Chapter IV.Famous People Grade is determined by course requirements: (1) Attendance (10%).

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Teaching reading model .co.uk/health-breaks/importance-exercise.htm).Questions 1.What does exercise mean in this text?2.What do you think of the statement, "the majority of us claim that we do not have time for exercise"?3.What are the benefits of exercises to the health?4. What kind of exercises can be done by a busy worker at office? 5. How to explain to busy workers that exercises are very important to their health?B.Reflect and RephraseReflect orally to the other groups what you get from reading the stories.Rephrase in the written form the story you read and submit it to your lecturer.
Its central dome is fifty-eight feet in diameter and rises to a height of 213 feet.It is flanked by four subsidiary domed chambers.The four graceful, slender minarets are 162.5 feet each.The central domed chamber and four adjoining chambers include many walls and panels of Islamic decoration.Taj Mahal is built entirely of white marble.Its stunning architectural beauty is beyond adequate description, particularly at dawn and sunset.The Taj seems to glow in the light of the full moon.On a foggy morning, the visitors experience the Taj as if suspended when viewed from across the Jamuna river.Budhist temple.It was built in the ninth century under the Sailendra dynasty of ancient Mataram Kingdom.Borobudur is located in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia.Borobudur is well-known all over the world.Its construction is influenced by the Gupta architecture of India.The temple is constructed on a hill 46 m high and consists of eight steps like stone terrace.The first five terraces are square and surrounded by walls adorned with Budhist sculpture in bas-relief.The upper three are circular.Each of them is with a circle of bell shape-stupa.The entire edifice is crowned by a large stupa at the centre of the top circle.The way to the summit extends through some 4.8 km of passage and star ways.The design of Borobudur which symbolizes the structure of universe influences temples at Angkor, Cambodia.Borobudur temple which is rededicated as an Indonesian monument in 1983 is a valuable treasure for Indonesian people.(Source,adapted:Handout to Learn Text Types, posted by Admin from www.hifit.co.uk/health-breaks/importance-exercise.htm).Being too fat is commonly known as overweight or obesity.It is simply defined as too much body fat inside.Overweight potentially leads high risk of health problem.Being too fat is recognized as a major factor for heart disease.Due to the overweight, the heart will work harder.It can lead to the heart attack.Furthermore, obesity potentially rises blood cholesterol and blood pressure.In addition, being too fat can change the amount of sugar in the blood.This will cause diabetes and other serious disease.Beside all of that, being too fat is often avoided by many young women.They said that becoming too fat will bother their physical beauty appearance.More serious studies are necessary to see the effect of obesity.However, it is clear enough that overweight is not good enough for healthy life.(Source: Handout to Learn Text Types, posted by Admin adapted from www.hifit.co.uk/health-breaks/importance-exercise.htm).
5. What do you want to be? Overweight or thin?Explain b.Why Exercise is Important