International Mindedness and ‘ Social Control ’

This research project explored effective ways of developing international mindedness. International mindedness is a term that now appears in the mission statement of many international schools yet there is a need for a clearer account of ways in which to develop internationally minded students. Many teachers and researchers leave the development of international mindedness to fate. However, external and internal forces such as planning, school practices and rituals, each teacher’s own actions, attitudes and behaviours, can all work to inhibit or foster the development of international mindedness in students. This paper discusses some of the outcomes from this recent research project focusing in particular on the positive implications inquiry learning can have on the development of international mindedness in an International Baccalaureate school implementing the Primary Years Program. It is argued that through inquiry learning and other processes in the curriculum, assessment and pedagogy, international schools can achieve the goals of their mission statement in a way that allows each student to come to their own realisation of international mindedness.

This recent research project was inspired out of a conviction that the field of education needs to somehow respond to the complex changes and challenges arising from our interdependent globalised world.It was inspired out of a belief that the field of education needs to rethink what an educated person needs to be in order to live in a society dominated by knowledge workers with even '…newer and even more stringent demands for social performance and social responsibility' (Drucker, 1989) where desire for change is perhaps one of the only consistent phenomena of the 21 st Century (Drennen, 2002).It was a response to confronting the enormous challenges and demands teachers of the 21 st Century are faced with when looking for an effective learning environment for students of today.
We hear about it in educational journals and conferences across the globe -the language of international education and with it, the term 'international mindedness' -either in reference to finding a solution to the uneasy assumption that there are more violent misfortunes between countries in our near future or perhaps in reference to schools that simply cater for the offspring of the bourgeoning parents who work outside their home country (Hayden, 2007).Much has been written and debated about these terms as they seem to offer some degree of a form of counter-balance to nationalism, peace or difference (Gellar, 2002).Nevertheless, interest in the area of international education has definitely surged in recent years -with teaching practitioners, school leaders, education researchers and administrators in the Western World aroused by the terms to the extent that they are either: conducting formal research in the field of international education; implementing an international curriculum in their school such as one of the three programs from the International Baccalaureate Organization; contributing to the rich literature devoted to the subject through writing journal articles; working together as practitioners towards developing a deeper understanding of the subject (Hayden & Thompson, 2000); working towards overcoming confusions between the difference between the terms 'international', 'internationalism', 'international education', 'international schools' and 'international mindedness' that are now so frequently quoted in schools, literature and the media; researching how a changing world calls for different teaching preparations.
Although it may have felt as though some were raising unrealistic expectations when UNESCO originally introduced international education into national systems of education around the globe in Geneva, 1974, international education, or education for international mindedness is starting '…to offer the only practical hope for the future of human kind' (Walker, 2002, p. 209) as it sets out to meet the demands our children of today may face in their changing world -a world where the nature of relationships between different cultures and nations are becoming increasingly challenged.Education for international mindedness or international education incorporates essential, relevant knowledge, skills, concepts and attributes that aim to help students prosper in an interdependent world and to live successfully amongst the complexities of the real world making it an attractive option for many schools wanting to prepare students of today for the challenges that the future may hold (Hill, 2002;Walker, 2002).
Though strange as it may seem, '...there is no single coherent picture of the "internationalism" or "international-mindedness" within the individual that, presumably, international education aims to develop' (Gunesch, 2007, p. 90) even though these inquiries are essential inquiries to explore if we are to successfully educate our children of today to be prepared to live in the years beyond school.The debates have alerted the author who currently teaches in a school that is currently implementing the PYP (Primary Years Program) of the IBO (International Baccalaureate Organisation).Hence, this research project was also a response to the author's own curiosity in this program and this paper represents the findings from the project that suggested relationships between the PYP of the IBO that can work to effectively prepare our students of today to live alongside the imperfect realities of our globalised, interdependent world.

Aims of the study
The main aim of this recent project was to gain a deeper understanding of international mindedness and to develop a deeper understanding of effective ways of developing international mindedness within the IB PYP.The main research question was to find out the extent in which the Primary Years Program (PYP) of the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) is effective in developing international mindedness in students.
Researching the extent in which the PYP effectively develops internationally minded students involved examining: The effects social control has on the development of international mindedness; What is international mindedness?How ideology influences the development of international mindedness; The ways in which international mindedness can be modelled in a school community; How international mindedness can be developed through pedagogy, assessment and the curriculum; The 10 attributes of the IB learner profile which are claimed by the IBO to be fundamental in defining an internationally minded student; Effective ways of developing international mindedness; How the teacher's own interpretation of international mindedness effects the development of international mindedness in students.
All of these smaller questions served to unpack the main research question which was to understand the effectiveness of the IB PYP in developing internationally minded students.To unpack the research question in the most informative way, looking at ways in which the curriculum, assessment and pedagogy of the IB school of research was arranged and implemented to try and develop international mindedness remained a focus of the study.After all, the framework of the IB PYP is normative -it is how the school interprets, implements and sustains the framework of the IB PYP that needed to be the focus of the study.To protect the identity of all participants the school of research, pseudonyms have been employed.

School of research
Cherry Primary School was chosen as the site of research because it was a candidate school for the IB PYP.Cherry Primary School was a Victorian State School well known in its district for its high level of academic achievement.The school had just over 900 students at the time of research, and was a well-resourced school with many newly developed buildings and a welcoming feel.At the time of research, there were a number of students on waiting lists to attend the school.However, its population growth was not only a result of its high academic achievement and high level of support for students with special needs -this was also a result from some external factors.Many students travelled from Asia to attend the local high school in the area, which is well sought after due to its high level of academic achievement.Moving to Australia to attend this high achieving academic high school was an idealistic attempt from some families to give their children: economic advantage; an international education; an understanding of Western culture; experience in speaking and learning English; other long term economic privileges.
For local students Cherry Primary School and its local high school offered a relatively affordable option for families, compared to sending children to some of the surrounding elite private schools.

The IBO and the School of Research
At the time of research, Cherry Primary School was pursuing authorization as an IB World School.These are schools that share a common philosophy -a commitment to high quality, challenging and international education.The IBO is one of the main agencies involved in the surge of international schools across the globe.In fact, at the end of 2007, it was noted that 2641 IB schools have been accredited since 1971 -with 56% of these IB schools being established between 2001and 2007 (IBO, 2002).The growth of IB schools is having a big impact on schools in the Western World, with over 95% of IB schools existing in developed countries (Drennen, 2002).
Rhetorically, the philosophy of the IBO -the driving force of the curriculum, assessment and pedagogy, is founded on a whole school philosophy of developing and promoting international mindedness in students.Cherry Primary School shared this vision -it also had the vision of developing international mindedness in all students and developing students who recognize and demonstrate shared guardianship and common humanity of the planet (IBO, 2007).Fundamentally, the IBO believes that their curriculum, assessment and pedagogy promotes international mindedness in students and '…develops inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect' (IBO, 2007, p. 2).
In any IB school, the IB learner profile drives the curriculum, assessment and pedagogy.The IBO claims that the attributes of the IB learner profile define an internationally minded student -someone with intercultural understanding and someone capable of making rational, critical and responsible decisions in the 21 st century (IBO, 2002).The attributes of the IB learner profile are : inquirers, thinkers, communicators, risk-takers, knowledgeable, principled, caring, open-minded, well-balanced, and reflective (IBO, 2007, p. 2).In an IB school, these attributes are intended to be developed in all students within any school culture and the 10 attributes of the IB learner profile should be a vital component of the curriculum, assessment and pedagogy.They are to be accepted, taught and modelled by the entire school community and in doing so, are said to lead to students demonstrating behaviours that define an internationally minded student.In short, IB learners should strive to live and be the IB learner profile in order to be an internationally minded person.
The main focus of this research project was to analyse the ways in which Cherry Primary School tried to develop the attributes of the IB learner profile.This was analysed by looking closely at the assessment, pedagogy and curriculum of the school and searching for ways in which they work to cultivate international mindedness in students.Through this, suggestions as to whether or not the IB learner profile offers a clear account of what an internationally minded student is and whether it is an ideal model that offers pragmatic and empirical individual outcomes for students all around the world rather than ideological and theoretical outcomes could be proposed.

Theory Base
It is vital to the success of any project that the researcher is clear about what theory base they are going to work with.For this project, searching for effective ways of developing international mindedness essentially involved the researcher searching for ways in which students construct meaning and involved the researcher trying to understand and describe the subjective experiences and understandings of students.Therefore, constructionist theories were mainly reviewed for this project and therefore, they greatly influenced the methodology for this project.This is also appeared to be the theory base that many other researchers chose to use when researching topics of international education as most scholars in this field view knowledge as a social construction.That is, most view knowledge as being constructed through students actively participating in their own learning and through creating their own unique perception of reality (Valsiner & Van Der Veer, 1994).

The Case Study Research Approach
In the context of this project, the case study research approach addressed the purpose of the research because it meant that the researcher could: Look in depth at the natural and interactive processes of the PYP curriculum, assessment and pedagogy through a small number of representative cases that were immersed in the happenings of the PYP; Understand the extent in which the PYP of the IBO was effective in developing an internationally minded student in a holistic and authentic way -holistic as the researcher was immersed in the phenomena rather trying to describe and understand it from a distance; Study the inquiry within a small time frame (Bell, 1999); Understand complex processes rather than a single phenomenon: 'If the case is produced from the repertoire of codes through which individuals make sense of their lives, by which interactions are managed and conflicts, social breakdowns and wars are understood and 'sides' taken, then for a researcher to produce a case study is to claim no less than to understand how the world works as a complex rather than as a singularity' (Schostak, 2002, p. 23); Study the processes of assessment, pedagogy and curriculum as they unfold naturally in the school; Study the research question in a nonmanipulative and unobtrusive way so data was accurate and authentic (Lincoln & Guba, 1985); Understand the distribution of power in one IB school and its effect on the development of international mindedness; Define a detailed, in depth and true account of the extent in which the assessment, pedagogy and curriculum processes of the PYP are effective in developing international mindedness.
The case study was compiled using three individual 'case' subjects.Each case was a student from three different year six classrooms within Cherry Primary School.The three students (cases) were purposely selected from three different classrooms so that the analysis was richer and more meaningful (Stake, 1995).Analysing the results from three case subjects rather than one provided more data to interrogate and lead the researcher to explore smaller issues pertinent to the main question (Yin, 1994).Where appropriate and possible in the social sciences, the findings from several cases can be more compelling than the findings from only one case (Herriot & Firestone, 1993;Yin, 1994).
Each of the three case subjects (students) in the project were not understood as self contained spheres, which is indeed one of the main problems to be wary about in case study (Schostak, 2002;Stake, 1978Stake, , 1995;;Yin, 1994).Rather, the three students in this case study were viewed as complex units of analysis or as Smith and Henry (Smith & Henry, 1999) and Stake (1995) so well defines, a 'bounded system' (p.2).Each case (student) was recognized as a student that was interacting with their teacher and peers and more implicitly, symbols, language, structures, behaviours, values and relationships in their social surroundings.Each was understood as a construction of the relationships with these phenomena.'To study a complex (case) is to study the possibilities for structuring, the possibilities for interaction, for social meanings, for restructuring' (Schostak, 2002, p. 23).It was in this way, that the researcher could better understand each of the three case subjects and the different complexities and unique interactions that each had with the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment processes in each of the different classrooms that they were immersed in.
The chosen methods of data collection for this project were interactive observations and semi-structured interviews.These methods all served to help the researcher understand each of the three case subjects deeply and most importantly, served to help the research in collecting data that lead to answers of my inquiry: 'Observations work the research toward greater understanding of the case.Refining the plan of observation is directed by the issue.We need observations pertinent to our issues' (Stake, 1995, p. 50).
Each of the three separate subjects was observed in each of their different classrooms for two hours each week over the course of three months.The main criteria used to choose each case subject was to ensure each participant maximized what the researcher could learn about effective ways of developing international mindedness.When observing, the natural setting in the classroom or area of observation was maintained.Although each of the three cases (students) in the study remained the primary units of analysis, relevant interactions between each case and their teacher, and pedagogical transactions between each of the three different students and each of their teachers provided a richer understanding of each case and provided rich data for answering my inquiry.The context of each case was viewed as an important aspect of each observation, so writing down any observations that occurred in the classroom environment (context) of each case was indeed an important part of every observation.Each student's own expression and development of international mindedness was measured against the attributes of the IB learner profile as this was a fair and consistent way that the researcher could measure the effectiveness of the IB PYP.Measuring each case's development of international mindedness using the attributes of the IB learner profile in all observation notes over the period of three months essentially helped the researcher to develop quite a deep understanding of the extent in which each case developed international mindedness through the assessment, pedagogy and curriculum processes of the PYP of the IBO.
Each case subject's teacher was interviewed towards the end of the project.Therefore, three teachers were interviewed.The interviews were semi-structured it was intended for the teachers involved to be and feel like collaborators in the research project.It allowed the voices and opinions of these teachers to be heard.Although this may have been a little more time consuming than structured interviews that usually contain specific, carefully considered and limited questions, it meant that the control could be passed onto the interviewee.The nature of semi-structured interviews also allowed more interesting information to be raised about ways in which the attributes of the IB learner profile are taught and interpreted by each student than what may typically have been found if the interview was a rigidly structured interview, where much of the control is on the interviewer (Connell & Campbell, 2007).All interviewees were enthusiastic and spoke openly throughout the interviews.As a result, the interviews served to unearth each teacher participant's insights into which pedagogical, assessment and curriculum processes worked effectively to develop international mindedness.
Each interview was transcribed, making the data easier and more accurate to interpret and then analyse.The transcripts of each interview, the data from the observation journal of all three student subjects alongside the literature from the researcher's literature review formed an essential component of the data analysed in this project.

Literature
Literature from Bernstein (1975) a well known social constructionist theorist, provided an important component of the literature reviewed in this project when trying to understand the ways in which each student developed international mindedness.Through his theory of 'social control', he proposes that education is nothing short of a 'social process' (Bernstein, 1973(Bernstein, , 1975) ) and that it is through the social processes, structures and routines of school that difference is produced and reproduced.He proposes that education is the primary social classifier through the three common message systems that all schools around the globe have in common: curriculum, pedagogy and assessment.He claims that these three message systems work to make education '…an agency of socialization and allocation ' (1975, p. 199).'How society selects, classifies, distributes, transmits and evaluates the educational knowledge it considers to be public, reflects both the distribution of power and the principles of social control ' (1975, p. 85).
Many followers of Bernstein such as Bourdeau, (Bernstein, 1973, 1975, 1990, 1992) Prosser, (1999) and Starratt (2003) also perceive education to play an important role in sustaining the inequities of society.They argue that knowledge is not an object that can be passed on from one person to another as a 'product' or series of isolated facts.Rather, these scholars view education to be central to producing and reproducing hierarchies and inequity in society.In short, these scholars have one theme in common -they all propose that knowledge is socially constructed.
Literature from these scholars alongside literature from the IBO was analysed extensively throughout this project to search for ways in which international mindedness is socially constructed through these three message systems.The literature formed a basis from which the researcher could draw links to in the analysing stage of the project so that an understanding of the social construction of international mindedness could be illuminated.Through understanding the social construction of international mindedness, effective ways of developing international mindedness in a school implementing the IB PYP could then proposed and these will be discussed later on in the paper.

A Brief History of International Mindedness
Recent interest in the term 'international mindedness' may have been instigated by the definite rise of interest in the topic of international education.The term is certainly one that many scholars and teachers struggle to define, and people courageous enough to explore the topic of 'international mindedness' are usually bold and upfront in admitting that defining it is not straightforward -some claim it's not even possible (Gunesch, 2004(Gunesch, , 2007;;Murphy, 2000).
The term 'international mindedness' is now starting to make more appearances in educational literature and curriculum models around the world such as the IBO, where it lies at the heart of their mission statement (Hill, 2001(Hill, , 2002)).In our current era, scholars such as Turnball (2002) emphasise that we must take action to develop internationally minded students if we expect our next generation to be able to cope with '…the enormity of global challenges, the rapid expansion of knowledge, and the complexity of issues in the contemporary world' (p.4).Sampatkumar (2007) supports this notion and states that we must incorporate the teaching of essential attitudes students will need when solving global issues in the near future.He proposes that education needs to ensure that students of today will be taught how to cope responsibly in the interdependent real world -learning how to promote harmony and peace among a world where national borders may appear to be crumbling, but difference only appears to continue to perpetuate.Turnball (2002)also emphasises that in our globalised, interdependent world, it is also essential that the curriculum is internationalised, and it must create opportunities for students to participate, enquire and reflect on global issues.He proposes that in our chaotic world, an international curriculum can make the future look brighter if the teaching of international mindedness helps drives the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment -but just how international mindedness can effectively be transmitted through the curriculum, pedagogy and assessment through to every student is the obscurity many educators in IB schools struggle with (Skelton, 2002(Skelton, , 2007)).

Defining international mindedness
The purpose of this project was not solely to interpret current definitions of the term 'international mindedness'.Opening up current definitions of international mindedness including the IB learner profile for critical appraisal, scrutiny and analysis is an extremely worthy topic -but it would provide enough interest for another research project in itself.However, for the purpose of the project it was essential to clarify a clear understanding of the term, as it is now used liberally in a multiplicity of ways throughout educational literature and other discussions of education in the 21 st century.
Ian Hill (Hill, 2002), deputy Director General of the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) since 2000, states that an internationally minded person is a person who demonstrates the 10 attributes of the IB learner profile.The IBO hopes that each student will graduate from a PYP school as a student who demonstrates the attributes of the IB learner profile -someone who '…in the struggle to establish a personal set of values, will be laying the foundation upon which international-mindedness will develop and flourish' (IBO, 2007, p. 4).
The main goal of IB schools is to promote world peace and international understanding through the IB learner profile (Hill, 2002& Sylvester, 2002).To this end, international mindedness lies at the heart of the philosophy of the IBO: The International Baccalaureate Organization aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.
To this end the IBO works with schools, governments and international organizations to develop challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment.
These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right (IBO, 2007, p. 2).
The 'IB leaner profile' explicitly defines the attributes of the IB learner profile -the attributes of a person that the IBO believes an internationally minded person would embrace or express.It states that an internationally minded person is someone who makes responsible decisions for life, is knowledgeable about global issues, is empathetic, is an inquirer, a thinker, a communicator, caring, open-minded, balanced, reflective and a risk-taker.
Although the success in developing the IB learner profile is dependent on many factors, for the educator in an IB school, the IB learner profile is believed to provide the outcomes for defining an internationally minded student (Hill, 2001).It is believed to provide a clear model for developing students who will make responsible decisions for life -students who will be open to the diverse problems of the interdependent world and students who are active in giving time to develop change: 'IB students give much time to world issues, to the environment, to poverty and other human problems.This is not only due to the general global approach of the curriculum, but above all to the requirement of ongoing social service among the community which is considered as important for the development of the students as academic studies.In short, it is an education for life, a responsible life, open to the problems of our world and encouraging students to give time and energy to bring about change' (Hill, 2001, p. 51).
However, because the success in developing the IB learner profile is dependent on so many factors, and because it cannot be measured through examinations and tests as would an understanding of world or global issues (Hicks & Townley, 1982) it makes the teaching of international mindedness difficult to understand.For example, if international mindedness cannot be measured through tradition tests and examinations, then how do we assess it?Many scholars also question the ability for students of primary school age to understand international mindedness (Gunesch, 2004(Gunesch, , 2007;;Haywood, 2007) These are challenging but relevant inquiries that need to be seriously looked at if we are to successfully develop internationally minded students.
Issac Quist (2006) suggests that in many curriculum models and educational literature, the teaching of international mindedness can often be described as a profile or a process oriented approach.He proposes that much literature in this area falls into the latter category.Gellar (2002) concurs with this notion, and emphasises that attention to both the profile and processes of international mindedness needs to be apparent in the culture, curriculum, assessment and pedagogy of a school for effective development of international mindedness.That is, not only does careful attention need to be paid to internationalising the curriculum but attention also needs to be paid to the school ethos, assessment and pedagogy.Although what we plan our children to engage within the learning process is important, carefully planning student learning is not enough to cultivate internationally minded students (Turnball, 2002).As Haywood (Haywood, 2002) proposes the culture of the school or as Hill puts it, the 'informal school experience' of the school as well as the decision making at the school needs to be international, think internationally and plan internationally through a profile and process oriented approach.
'Clearly in the perceptions of a number of key protagonists in international education there is more to the concept than…a curriculum based in the cognitive domain' (Hayden & Thompson, 1995, p. 340).Schools need to consider exactly what knowledge, skills and attitudes students will need in order to be prepared to live in an interdependent world.The school ethos, the curriculum, the teachers and the school community all need to model international mindedness through the pedagogy, curriculum, learning process and school culture.As the IBO proposes, teachers, administrators, policy planners and leaders need to act internationally, plan internationally, think internationally and be internationally minded.
Although the IB mission statement claims to be quite 'process oriented' in its development of international mindedness, it is also 'profile oriented' because it seeks to develop a balance between the '…acquisition of essential knowledge and skills, development of conceptual understanding, demonstration of positive attitudes, and taking of responsible action' (IBO, 2007, p. 10) through its five essential elements: knowledge, skills, concepts, action and attitudes.In IB schools, the driving force of all five essential elements, is to develop internationally minded students and an understanding of globalisation, internationalism, cultural identities and socio-political contexts (Hill, 2007).In brief: 'the IBO seeks to develop citizens of the world who: are aware of global issues (such as world peace and environment concerns); appreciate, respect and understand other cultures; and have an understanding of and respect for the human condition in all its manifestations' (Hill, 2001, p. 50).
Gardner (Gardner, 1995) asserts that all people yearn for a strong and clear value system.The IB learner profile therefore needs to be a clear focus for students and teachers in IB schools in order for international mindedness to be cultivated effectively and clearer ways of teaching it need to be established as it is a gap in research to date.As Gardner proposes (Gardner, 1981(Gardner, , 1985(Gardner, , 1995)), without an agreed understanding of a value system then a community will either stagnate, or survive in dissention and conflict.Without an agreed vision within a school, it is unlikely that a school will achieve its objectives, vision or goals.In short, through Gardner's view, in an IB school, without an agreed commitment from leaders, parents, students and teachers to work towards living the attitudes of the IB learner profile, then that IB school will not reach its vision of being internationally minded.

Findings
It would be difficult to argue against the belief that the now well established IB PYP is successful in developing international mindedness in students.How it is successful however, and the degree in which is successful was the sole purpose of the analysis of data in this project.The analysis focused on effective pedagogical, assessment and curriculum processes that the data, linked with literature from the literature review, suggested were effective in developing international mindedness in three classrooms of an IB school.I believe that the analysed data which explored the development of international mindedness in the three classrooms of one IB school portrayed a school of endeavour and aspiration with critically reflective and inspirational teachers.

Inquiry Learning and the Development of International Mindedness
Throughout all observations, inquiry learning could be seen to drive each student subject's learning.At the time of observations, students were following an inquiry unit that looked into 'the human body'.The data from all observation notes suggested that the inquiry approach to learning in each classroom allowed each student to be an active participant in their learning about the human body -they had choices in many aspects of their learning.This created a rather democratic learning environment.The data suggested that teachers did not 'teach' facts on the human body, but provided a range of resources and different perspectives on the human body so that students could find their own questions that they wanted to follow up.All student subjects were encouraged to draw meaning from their own learning experiences that allowed them to engage in efforts that focused on questions that were meaningful to them.
In this way, the inquiry learning observed reflected Bruce's (2002) definition of inquiry learning: 'Rather than thinking of knowledge as static and the learner as an empty vessel whose job it is to absorb as much as possible of that predefined material' (p.84) data from the observations suggested that all student subjects were 'inquirers' in their learning, working through problems that were relevant to their own world.The data suggested that his had many positive implications for each student subject's development of international mindedness.The data from student observations suggested when each student subject made their own choices about their learning they were able to develop attributes of the learner profile by (attributes of the IB learner profile in bold): Being caring through respecting and tolerating each other's diverse choices in their learning and listening to each other's questions; Teachers creating a stimulating learning environment through allowing students to inquire their own relevant and meaningful real-life problems, developing their own natural curiosity; Teachers encouraging students to be open-minded when they approached solutions to their inquiries.Often when student subjects were asked questions, the teacher encouraged them to think about the question and probed them to find answers themselves through interactive classroom discussions, small group discussions and research approaches that were scaffolded and guided by the teacher; Teachers developing thinkers through encouraging students to choose their own problems that they inquired whilst still keeping the students on the line of inquiry; Having to take risks by trying new problem solving techniques, inquiring topics unknown to them as well as a range of different summative and formative assessment tasks; Teachers setting up a classroom environment based on trust that encouraged students to develop integrity, as so be principled; Teachers allowing students to be knowledgeable through encouraging curiosity by exploring relevant, real life concepts, ideas and issues that have global and local significance; Allowing students to be reflective by planning the ways in which they engage with efforts to address the particular question they have chosen and through assessing their approach with their own strengths and limitations -usually at the closure of every lesson and in each student's reflective journal; Establishing a balanced classroom environment through giving thoughtful consideration to sensible deadlines for their assignments related to their own choice of questions, and juggling student participants' physical, intellectual and emotional needs; Encouraging all students to be communicators through expressing their thoughts, feelings and ideas confidently and effectively in their group as well as in front of their class.Teachers also encouraged all students to listen to each other's ideas and feelings in their group and class.
When linking the data about each student's ability to 'act' internationally minded to the attributes of the IB learner profile throughout a program of inquiry, the data proposed that inquiry learning engaged each student subject in all attributes of the learner profile through: Engaging each student in the process of asking questions; Engaging in open-ended questions through research approaches; Creating questions in collaboration with students; Allowing students to create their own chosen ways of engaging with the chosen question; Discussing solutions to questions as a whole class; and Regular reflections in their reflective journal through reflecting on their own learning and accuracy.
Throughout all observations, it was noted that all classrooms were noisy as many students were encouraged to ask questions and share ideas.These classrooms were much noisier than traditional classroom environments where the main road to learning: Was typically through the tool of repetition and memorization of facts; Was usually measured on the exactness of knowledge; Placed a large emphasis on 'neat work' in work books; Rewarded willing learners, and punished pupils that expressed a natural unwillingness to learn; Consisted of teachers providing the 'facts' and pupils passively receiving them;

Perceived teachers as having full control over what and how pupils learnt;
Viewed all minds as potentially equal, and differences in opinions had little place in school studies (Johnson, 2009).
Data from the transcribed interviews with all teacher participants suggested that allowing students to ask questions and share different points of view may create a noisy classroom, but it actually served to help students act attributes of the IB learner profile.After discussing the differences between traditional classroom environments and a modern inquiry based classroom with Jane (pseudonym), one of the teacher participants, she suggested that in programs of inquiry, it is very important to find a balance between these two different styles of learning -a balance between giving students autonomy over their own learning and the teacher having control of what and how they learn: 'The role of students in a program of inquiry is to drive the inquiry, but it's important that the teacher still has the overall control, or still directs the program of inquiry -this is really important.Finding the balance between the two is the key' (Jane)

Some implications for developing international mindedness
Despite the data suggesting that all student subjects demonstrated attributes of the IB learner profile, the data showed little evidence of any of the three message systems in the classrooms that I observed exposing student participants to global issues.Eric, one of the teacher participants, stated in his interview that internationalising the nature of the inquiry topic 'the human body' was quite difficult as "…it is quite a universal topic" (Eric).Consequently, although all student subjects were being all of the 10 attributes of the IB learner profile at times throughout the program of inquiry, they were not really demonstrating a global understanding of any of the attributes as is understood from the definition provided from the IB definition of international mindedness.This may suggest that the interdisciplinary focus of the IB was not really fully embraced by teachers, as they generally took this topic to refer to biology more than culture, history or geography for example, yet racism -a global issue, is all about the human body.
Another implication for the teaching of international mindedness that became apparent throughout the data analysis, was that each case embraced their own interpretation of all mindedness.This idea was also reflected in an interview with one of the teachers (Ella): "I taught in Hong Kong, and I think when you do that, you actually see -get more of an understanding of what your cultural understandings are, because there are things that I think are normal, and then when I go and live in a different country, I realise that it may be completely unacceptable or valued more, like burping for example -kids burp in Hong Kong, and that's acceptable in class, but here it's not.Also, over there you are not allowed to touch people on the head -there it's really bad" (Ella) In this way, 'the human body' can be viewed as an enculturated body which is context dependent with mores and meanings that are context applicable.These two dilemmas lead the researcher to ask two main questions: 1.If students do not only learn international mindedness through the curriculum throughout programs of inquiry as the data suggests, how do they learn international mindedness or where else are they learning it so that it can be enhanced?
2. Why did all student participants develop their own interpretation of international mindedness, and is this acceptable?
These two dilemmas will now be discussed.
4.2.1 If students do not only learn international mindedness through the curriculum throughout programs of inquiry as the data suggests, how do they learn international mindedness or where else are they learning it so that it can be enhanced?
Although data from the observations suggested that all student subjects were demonstrating attributes of the IB learner profile, there is very little data suggesting that they were demonstrating attributes of the IB learner profile in a global sense throughout the learning of the program of inquiry, 'the human body'.But like Quist (Quist, 2005(Quist, , 2006) ) proposes, it is not just the learning in the topic of the inquiry that needs to be internationalised -these process oriented approaches of teaching international mindedness that focus only on internationalising the curriculum are not enough to develop a deep sense of international mindedness.Rather, profile oriented approaches to developing international mindedness, where focus on '…dispositions such as intellectual curiosity, being knowledgeable, active and compassionate are placed in the service of intercultural understanding, respect and the process of 're-membering' our dismembered world ' (2006, p. 6) is essential if students are to learn how to think, act and be internationally minded.
The data suggested that even though all student subjects were not exposed to many global issues through the curriculum in class, they still demonstrated the 10 attributes of the IB learner profile suggesting that the curriculum must not have been the only opportunity for students to develop international mindedness.The question begging out of this point was, "How?How was it that students revealed all 10 attributes of the IB learner profile throughout an inquiry unit that was scientifically based…and how could they develop a more global perception of the term?" This lead the investigation to study school focused 'cultural day' activities, which the school participated in at least once per term.The purpose of the cultural days was to celebrate different cultures from within the school community.However, the data suggested that although all teacher participants believed that holding whole school events such as cultural days can often help to develop international mindedness to some extent, it suggested that these days can sometimes be quite superficial unless the cultural events that the school celebrates are authentic.That is, unless they really are authentic events in which that particular culture celebrates.Data from the interview with Ella summarises this notion nicely: 'I think they are good and they're fun and they can provide in some cases a really authentic experience like an example might be a Chinese festival -if you can experience that, it's not like you're creating a festival that is made up, but it is something that a country actually celebrates.Canada week -Japan week -they can be tokenistic, but a Chinese festival is something that is significant -it actually happens, so it's real.It needs to be an authentic experience.Dressing up like something is tokenistic unless it is a real experience that actually goes on.The experiences are important -it's just when you do things that are actually practised in some countries it's actually more authentic and fair.Also, it has to be supported by classroom learning otherwise it can be tokenistic' (Ella).This is not to imply that cultural days that celebrate different cultures serve no purpose in schools.Cultural festivals and celebrations may in fact serve different and often very rational reasons.Rather, this point highlights how reflective teachers must be when contemplating celebrating cultural events as they can have potential to portray superficial understandings of international mindedness.These practices (Skelton, 2007) can then embrace notions of 'the other' and often difference can be further accentuated, with the 'other' culture becoming more 'exotic', polarising difference even further.Literature from Skelton supports this notion: '…we need to see international-mindedness lite for what it is.Typified in many ways by the often quoted focus on the 4Fs of Food, Festivals, Fashion and Flags, the student experiences that result are often too superficial to enable children and students to develop a sense of the other from them.In fact, there is a real danger that they become opportunities for children and students to find the features of other cultures exotic but not as having deep meaning' (Skelton, 2007, p. 388).
Data from the interview transcripts with all teacher participants suggested that when organising these events, the events must not only be authentic, but they need to be well supported before and after the event in class and students need to sense some ownership of the day for them to be successful in developing intercultural sensitivity: 'These days can be a great part of the school, but only if there's a lot of inquiry in class before and after the event.If the students have a real sense of ownership of the day, then it can be a really successful event to have' (Ella).
The data suggested that all student subjects were not given many opportunities to explore global issues throughout the curriculum during their program of inquiry on 'the human body', and given that the data and literature suggested that cultural days are not believed to be overly effective in developing international mindedness (if at all), all student participants must have been developing international mindedness somewhere else.
Once the investigation analysed data pertinent to assessment and pedagogy within the program of inquiry, it could be seen that all student participants were given ample opportunities to develop international mindedness through the assessment and pedagogical processes which all teacher participants used throughout the program of inquiry, suggesting that all three of Bernstein's three message systems were equally important in developing international mindedness.Bernstein's (Bernstein, 1975(Bernstein, , 1990(Bernstein, , 1992) theory of 'social control' proposes that knowledge, values and behaviours are socially produced and re-produced at school through power relations, beliefs and values that manipulate decision making in the three message systems.The data from the transcribed interviews and observation journal suggested that international mindedness was developed particularly through the two message systems of pedagogy and assessment (as there were limited opportunities through the inquiry unit) and so, is developed through forms of social control.This notion was supported with literature that proposes students construct their own meaning or understanding of international mindedness from information and experiences extracted through: Life experiences -through the messy stages of life when moving from one stage of life to the next (Skelton, 2007); Their values, beliefs and experiences at school (2003); Diversity articulated through the curriculum, assessment and pedagogy of a school (Hayden, Thompson, & Levy, 2007); Cultural commitments, beliefs and practices (Hayden, et al., 2007) Teacher coaching and modelling of international mindedness (Hayden, et al., 2007;Skelton, 2007).
Rather than just focusing on globalising issues in the curriculum, data suggested that all teacher participants effectively developed international mindedness through viewing assessment and pedagogy as inescapably interdependent and as equally critical in developing international mindedness.Eric stated that 'exposing them (students) to different ideas and different cultures and value systems, questioning them, and questioning why they believe things, rather than just letting them accept their opinions' is just one vital component of developing internationally minded students -it is not just not just the processes in the curriculum but it's the classroom teacher's ability to act, plan and be internationally minded when planning the curriculum assessment and pedagogy that plays an essential role in students developing international mindedness.Jane put this notion nicely, and her idea was reflected through my interview with the other two teacher participants: '…the teacher always keeping international mindedness in mind and when you do and plan things, you need to put a filter on and ask "is that my focus, am I being international?"As a year level, when we plan, we always ask ourselves if what we are going to teach could be taught to any school in any country' (Jane).
In summary, literature from Bernstein (Bernstein, 1973(Bernstein, , 1975(Bernstein, , 1990(Bernstein, , 1992) ) proposes that the development of knowledge is a social process controlled by the three message systems of the school; pedagogy, curriculum and assessment.The data suggests that international mindedness can also be developed through the three message systems of the school making the learning of international mindedness a social process: Through pedagogy: even in programs of inquiry that did not allow scope for global issues to be raised, all three teacher participants modelled international mindedness and acted with international mindedness through their own pedagogy, decision making, values and behaviour in class and beliefs; Through assessment: teacher participants included useful and informative assessment approaches that constructed a social context for internationally minded behaviour rather than neutral systematic assessment approaches.Furthermore, they used diverse assessment approaches that focused on outcomes rather than performance and a balance of summative and formative assessment tasks were closely related to real life problems.Students following up their assessment and then reflecting on the 'how's' and 'why's' of assessment was also regarded an important component of the assessment process; Through planning the curriculum: teacher participants constantly planned with international mindedness and where appropriate, issues were explored locally as well as globally as '…the skills students develop through exploring local issues set students up with skills for them to explore global issues' (Eric).
4.2.2Why did student participants develop their own interpretation of international mindedness and is this acceptable?
The data from all student observations suggested that all student participants expressed attributes of the IB learner profile differently.For example, whilst the data suggested that all student subjects demonstrated the 'caring' attribute in group situations, one student participant tended to help students solve problems related to their work by telling them the answer, whereas one of the other student participants was usually the student in the group who gave out encouragement to other people's ideas and kept some of his rather distracted peers 'on task'.The following quote is a direct quote demonstrating this notion from the observation journal.When this comment was made, the student subject was working with three other students to create a square meter cube out of wire: "Come on guys, we've got to be finished this soon!Start holding this…" Data from the interviews with all teacher participants supported this idea, as it suggested that differences exist from culture to culture making the expression of international mindedness vary from culture to culture.The example mentioned earlier that discussed the acceptability of 'burping' in class in Hong Kong supports this notion.
Literature from Haywood (2007)also supports this notion.He proposes that it is inevitable that students will express international mindedness differently as different cultures can be distinguishable from each other in terms of the strength of commitment to beliefs and practices people within that culture generally embrace.Furthermore, each student will relate differently to their own culture's practices and beliefs making cultural beliefs and practices vary internally.Although this may make it difficult to define international mindedness, he proposes that it is the teacher's responsibility to encourage people in the school community (students and parents) to express and develop their own response of international mindedness, as different opinions will inevitably exist on debates central to expressions of international mindedness.
Data from the research suggested that all teacher participants understood some of these complexities in developing international mindedness and saw the complexities of developing international mindedness in a multicultural school.They saw it as the teacher's role to help students create their own meaning of international mindedness through the relationships, mistakes and experiences that students have at school as different cultures have different 'norms'.The previous teacher quote on the different cultural norms she experienced when teaching in Hong Kong illuminates this point -what may be acceptable in one culture may be considered rude in another.
To this end, data suggested that all teacher participants aimed to cultivate a learning environment that encouraged people in the school community (students and parents) to express and develop their own response of international mindedness as they all believed that different opinions exist on debates central to expressions of international mindedness.Interview transcripts also suggested that all teacher participants believed that giving student participants choices in aspects of their learning supported them in finding their own expression of international mindedness.Furthermore, data suggested that student participants were not expected to passively modify their behaviours, beliefs and values to accommodate a set definition of international mindedness -student mistakes were seen as opportunities for students to develop international mindedness, rather than an opportunity to punish and teacher mistakes were seen as an opportunity to model reflective behaviour and honesty: 'If a teacher makes mistakes, I think that that's important.We need to show children how to reflect, how to be a good reflector in front of the children.To be honest, it would take quite a bit of strength for some teachers' (Jane).
In summary, all teacher participants articulated the importance of promoting a self-corrective, reflective and critical community of inquirers and the importance of cultivating a nurturing and democratic teaching and learning environment so that students could create their own expression of international mindedness.All student participants were encouraged to open up and discuss deeper senses of the term through looking closely at their own and each other's real life experiences, rather than simply viewing other cultures as 'exotic'.They were not expected to reach an ideological expression of international mindedness but were encouraged to hold multiple perspectives of each attribute of the IB learner profile so they could view different cultural issues from more than one viewpoint and each develop their own expression of international mindedness.
If students are not coached and guided to find their own understanding of international mindedness, then the opposite of tolerance can result.Helping students find their own expression of international mindedness will not happen where planning focuses only on internationalising aspects of the curriculum.Rather, when cultivating international mindedness, educators must focus on all three message systems: pedagogy, assessment and curriculum and view all three as vital and inescapably intertwined.

Conclusion
In IB schools, where there is a shared and unified vision of international mindedness, Bernstein's social re-production theory has potential to re-produce a value system that transcends national boundaries and different cultures when: Universal values are modelled through a strong school culture that promotes peace and international mindedness rather than a hierarchy of values maintained by the dominant culture or class; The pedagogy, curriculum and assessment strategies transcend cultural boundaries; Teachers, leaders and parents think, plan and act with international mindedness; International mindedness drives all decision making.
However, this won't happen effortlessly.Teachers, teacher leaders and planners need to examine and strategically plan ways in which all classes and cultures within the school can develop international mindedness.This means explicating a clear understanding of international mindedness that speaks for the fundamental values of all cultures in the school and to all people in the school community.Furthermore, the vision of the school, where the school is going, the rituals and the structures of the school need to illustrate themes that speak from global cultures rather than only speaking for the culture of the home country of the school.
In a multicultural school, these themes need to speak of the fundamental values of cultures representative of the school context whilst also relating strongly to global intercultural values and the international opportunities and challenges that lie ahead.If values are developed at school as Bernstein (1975) and Starratt (2003) and the data from this project propose then it is vital that leaders continually critically reflect on the ways in which external forces as well as internal forces such as planning, school practices and rituals, their own actions, attitudes and behaviour, work to inhibit the development of an internationally minded school and the development of international mindedness in students.
In an IB school, although the IB learner profile offers a common understanding for international mindedness, educators need to understand that there is no one set way to act internationally minded.Students respond differently when displaying actions prompted by the development of international mindedness and interpretations of attributes of the IB learner profile may vary slightly amongst cultures making the expression of international mindedness vary in the way students or teachers demonstrate international mindedness.As Haywood states: 'The educator's role is not to direct students towards a particular style of IM (international mindedness), but is instead to encourage a predisposition towards international-mindedness in general that will allow students to develop their own responses and channels of expression' (Haywood, 2007, p. 85).
That is, international mindedness can be articulated or expressed slightly differently and different priorities may be given to different attributes of international mindedness that may affect the ways in which different people demonstrate international mindedness.Therefore, it is not the teacher's role to indoctrinate the teacher's own understanding of international mindedness.Rather, educators need to be open-minded to variations of the interpretation of international mindedness and must not promote their own interpretation of the attributes or values of international mindedness as the only acceptable way of being internationally minded.This is not to imply that a school needs to avoid defining the term 'international mindedness'.There still needs to be a clear common understanding of international mindedness in the culture of any internationally minded school and in an IB school, the IB learner profile offers a broad common ground for teachers to gain some form of clear understanding from and it is essential that the school strategically ensures that students are immersed in learning experiences that expose students to all aspects of the learner profile.As Haywood argues, simply ticking them off throughout the term or expecting opportunities to arise by themselves is not enough: 'Any school that holds international-mindedness as one of its professed outcomes must ensure that strategies are firmly in place to ensure that the learning experience provides for all these areas.None of them can be taken for granted as part of a student's natural development nor as features that can be learned by osmosis from the scholastic environment without an explicit statement of aims, objectives and expectations for what this learning will imply for students of different ages.The list includes specific content and knowledge in areas such as geography and science.It calls on the need to address the concept of interrelatedness in direct terms' (Haywood, 2007, p. 87).
Developing internationally minded students is vital in maintaining world peace and that can only truly be achieved in a school that thinks, acts and plans with international mindedness.As such, many teachers working in IB schools or other internationally minded schools need to write a new script and include the development of universal values and attitudes that prepare students for living now and in the future.These scripts need to be adaptable to ongoing changes that are inevitable in our globalised world as well as other new emerging alignments of work, power and communication (Bruce, 2002) and students of today need to learn the appropriate knowledge, concepts, skills and attributes that will prepare them to work through complex global, international and intercultural challenges that lie waiting in the future.
The framework of the PYP of the IBO: the knowledge, skills, concepts, attitudes and action, offers a foundational approach to the learning of international mindedness.This provides a sense of direction for the internationally minded teacher to cultivate a rich community of global learners.The IB learner profile offers a broad common ground from which to understand international mindedness, so that the internationally minded teacher can then help students cultivate meaning, responsibility and a global sense of community (Starratt, R. 2003) through each student's own intercultural experiences, understandings that they may encounter through their own learning experiences, other school experiences, their own mistakes and their relationships with others at school.
Developing internationally minded students has potential to narrow the gap between the rich and the poor and the advantaged and disadvantaged.In an IB school, through merging an internationalised curriculum with useful and informative assessment approaches that construct a social context for internationally minded behaviour rather than neutral systematic assessment approaches focused on performance rather than outcomes, driven by an internationally minded school with internationally minded teachers, the teaching of international mindedness has potential to be the vehicle for empowering students of today to be responsible decision-makers of this century.
However, those contemplating a career in an internationally minded school need to realise that it is not a prospect for the faint-hearted educator and not for the teacher lacking enthusiasm for confronting the challenges in education in the 21 st century.Rather, for the teacher in an IB school or the teacher simply wishing to deeply cultivate internationally minded students, they need to be truly internationally minded themselves.Teaching in an IB school or another internationally minded school is for teachers that have the courage to teach in an era of radical transition.It is a satisfying and exciting career path for teachers that want to pursue educating students alongside the imperfect realities of our globalised, interdependent world.For these teachers, the idea of students being able to take on what we have started starts to become an exciting possibility and hopefully, students will be the beneficiaries, with the capacity and capabilities to make a better world.