Emotional Intelligence and Psychographic Profiles of the Potential First Class Students

The study examined the correlation between emotional intelligence dimensions and psychographic attributes among Potential First Class students. The study also explored the differences between age and ethnicity factors on the level of psychographics attributes among 424 potential first class students (69 males and 355 females). The result showed significant relationship between emotional intelligence dimensions as well as significant correlation between psychographics attributes. Furthermore, significant relationship was found between emotional intelligence construct and psychographics attributes. In addition, the results showed that there were differences on the level of psychographics attributes based on the age and ethnicity factors. Lastly, the study recommended that emotional intelligence, and psychological constructs are important factors that could improve student success, especially for the university students.


Introduction
Graduate studies are established for the development of education towards a higher level, to provide a generation with knowledge that will be useful for their future.Students are valuable assets of the nation.They are the future leaders and they will determine the direction of the nation in future.In recent years, there is an increase in the expectations of stakeholders on the quality of graduates in Institutions of Higher Learning (IHE).Universities are expected to produce graduates that have the capacity to enhance their learning, potentially to higher levels of postgraduate studies.This is in line with the aspiration of Malaysia; to produce 60,000 doctorates by 2015 under the government effort known as Mybrain 15.Particularly, Mybrain 15 is one of the critical agendas of the National Higher Education Strategic Plan (Pelan Strategik Pengajian Tinggi Negara-PSPTN).Its main aim is to develop human resources that are highly knowledgeable as a catalyst to enhance research and innovation as well as to ensure that the development of knowledge based economy on innovation can be achieved successfully.
The success of a student at university is evidence that can be associated with other variables or a combination of variables consisting of academic and non-academic factors.EI has emerged as an important factor that influences one's success in life.Intellectual intelligence contributes only 20% to one's success while the remaining 80% of a person's success in life is contributed by emotional and social intelligence (Goleman, 1995).Past researchers found that EI had great influence in all aspects of life including health and social matters.Although people of high intelligence quotient (IQ) and those of moderate IQ always do well in life, the lack of EI can sabotage their intellect and ruin their careers (Harrington-Lueker, 1997).The importance of emotions, feelings, and ethics are to ensure the positive engagement with others.People with high level of EI experience more career success, build stronger personal relationship, lead more effectively, and enjoy better health.Belanger (2005) stated that although cognitive intelligence can help students select courses to major in, EI is a better predictor of student's success in completing the study.Students with high EI are prepared to deal with the challenges of new environment, setting up a responsibility schedule and study plan, meeting new people, and dealing with frustration and anxieties of being out of control of the environment (Goleman, 1998).
The previous paragraphs outline about the EI.Meanwhile, the Psychographics features three components: values, self-concept, and lifestyles.However, the term psychographics is often used interchangeably with lifestyles which put forth activities/attitudes and opinions (AIO) as the research variables.Woodside and Pitts (1976) and Abbey (1979) empirically tested the effectiveness of psychographics and found that lifestyle variables were important in classifying respondents, and in relation to that it communicated something that was real, meaningful, and relevant, beyond what demographic analysis could do.Plog (1994) argued that segmentation based on psychographic characteristics could produce clearly defined groups of individuals with similar lifestyles and interest.Good psychographic research can greatly increase the effectiveness of identifying the appropriate target group, focusing the message on its psychographic needs, and selecting the appropriate candidates.
Since the main strategy of Malaysian educational system is to produce young experts in the country, this study investigates the psychographic and emotional intelligence factors of potential first class students in the hope to obtain preliminary information of the needs and profile of the students before the development of any intervention programmes to fulfil the strategy of the goals of the country in general.Therefore, the purpose of the study is to evaluate the emotional intelligence and psychographic attributes and the relationships between both variables as perceived by the potential first class University Utara Malaysia undergraduates.

Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this quantitative study are to identify the relationship between emotional intelligence dimensions, the relationship between psychographic attributes, to compare the levels of psychographic attributes based on demographic characteristics such as age, ethnicity, and colleges, as well as to determine the relationship between emotional intelligence variable and psychographic attributes among potential first class students in University Utara Malaysia.In short, the objectives of the study are: 1) To examine the relationship between emotional intelligence dimensions among first class students in University Utara Malaysia.
2) To examine the relationship between psychographic attributes among first class students in University Utara Malaysia.
3) To compare the level of psychographic attributes based on demographic variables (such as age and ethnicity) among first class students in University Utara Malaysia.4) To determine the relationship between emotional intelligence variable and psychographic attributes among first class students in University Utara Malaysia.

Emotional Intelligence
EI has generally been defined as "the awareness of our emotion and the importance the emotions play in our relationships and our lives" (Goleman, 1995;Mayer & Salovey, 1990;Baron, 1997).Thorndike (1920) coined EI as social intelligence and along the same lines of study, Gardner (1983) introduced a model of multiple intelligence composed of the ability for intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence.Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, (2004) defined EI as the "ability to recognize the meaning of emotions and their relationships and to use them as a basis for reasoning and problem solving".Mayer et al. (2004) believed that the EI is related to cognitive intellect through the ability to use reasoning by way of information to find meaning.However, Mayer and Salovey (2004) argued that the skills that comprise EI were likely enhanced through obtaining a liberal education infused with values exploration.Mayer et al. (2004) contended that there are four branches of abilities that create emotional intelligence: (a) the skill of perceiving emotion within oneself and others, (b) assimilation of an emotion to facilitate thinking, (c) understanding and knowledge of emotion, and (d) conscious regulation of emotion.
Generally, researchers claimed that students need early EI programs in order to succeed in their environment because it incorporates a number of abilities, including the ability to be aware of one's own and others emotions, to be able to manage those emotions, and to understand the complex relationships that can occur between emotions and likely emotional transition (Austin et al., 2005;Mayer & Salovey, 1997).On the other hand, the EI is considered as a basic component that predicts not only academic achievement but also personal attributes that comprises of protective factors that are related to successes of children, adolescents, and adults in later life (Goleman, 1995).In addition, Goleman (1995) claimed that the EI could be more powerful than the IQ in the determination of life's successes including academic achievement and an array of social and emotional behaviors linked to educational and life successes.Goleman (1995) further added that it can be increased as time passes either through formal and informal learning strategies.Despite the problems with the various definitions of EI, the development of EI competencies has been reviewed as important process of developing relationships and working with other group.In this study, the EI refers to the Goleman's (1995) as well as Goleman et al. (1998Goleman et al. ( , 2002) ) models of EI as they provide a model for competency.

Psychographic Attributes
Basically, psychographics have three components namely attitude, interest, and opinion (AIO).These components are also referred to as psychographics profile with the application of AIO to studying lifestyle based on quantitative measures.In other words, psychographic analysis is a technique that investigates how people live, what interest them, and what they like-Also called lifestyle analysis or AIO because it relies on a number of statements about a person's activities, interest, and opinion.Therefore, psychographics profile is useful in understanding the AIO of potential 1st class students in UUM.In general, the psychographic researchers would like to analyze these three factors primarily in order to understand the psyche of the students.Then researchers can adopt a suitable coaching and mentoring strategy or they can alter an existing coaching and mentoring strategy.Woodside and Pitts (1976) and Abbey (1979) empirically tested the effectiveness of psychographics and found that lifestyle variables were important in classifying respondents and these variables communicate something that is real, meaningful, and relevant, beyond what demographic analysis could do.In the context of this study, four dimensions of psychographic characteristics are selected to measure and evaluate potential first class students in UUM.The four dimensions are achievement motivation, self-efficacy, time management, and leisure attitude.

Potential First Class Students
Students who are able to achieve a Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) of 3.5 and above between their first to their sixth semester may be seen as having the potential to being able to graduate with first class honours degree.In this study, students who have the potential to graduate with first class honours were chosen because they are likely to be given the opportunity to continue with their postgraduate studies.

Achievement Motivation
General achievement motivation is widely recognized as a capacity to experience pride in accomplishment or a disposition to strive for success across varied achievement situations and standards (Atkinson, 1974).Murray (1938), who first discussed achievement motivation as a personality disposition, more explicitly described the need to achieve as the desire "to accomplish something difficult", "to master, manipulate or organize physical objects, human beings, or ideas, to do this as rapidly and as independently as possible", "to overcome obstacles and attain a high standard", "to excel one's self", "to rival and surpass others", and "to increase self-regard by the successful exercise of talent" (p.164).Achievement motivation is not a single dimension variable and has several dimensions.For example, some people strive for success because it is a positive goal; others strive for success because they fear the consequences of failure.Thus, one student might work hard in school because he/she really likes his/her courses and has fun with them, but other students might work equally hard because he/she fears the consequences of not getting good grades, such as not getting a good job or not getting into graduate school.In spite of that, for most students, the need for achievement and fear of failure are probably mixed.Therefore, different approaches to achievement have provided insight into additional aspects of achievement.According to Jackson, Ahmed, and Heapy (1976), there are six distinct dimensions for achievement motivation: (1) status with experts; (2) acquisitiveness; (3) achievement via independence; (4) status with peers; (5) competitiveness; and (6) concern for excellence.They devised five different methods for measuring each of the six dimensions, resulting in thirty different scales.There are weak relationships among the different dimensions with all five measurement methods, but each of the five methods is strongly related within each of the dimensions.This is evidence that there are at least six achievement dimensions, which are reliable across different measurement scales.

Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy (SE) is defined as the levels of confidence individuals have in their ability to execute certain courses of action, or achieve specific outcomes (Bandura, 1977(Bandura, , 1997)).According to Bandura (1997), the SE beliefs are constructed from four sources of information namely enactive mastery experience or the experience from performing similar tasks, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and physiological states.SE has been used by several researchers as a predictor of performance because it is said that efficacy expectations can influence initiating behaviours, and the degree of persistence applied in overcoming difficulties encountered in the pursuit of accomplishing a task or tasks (Bandura, 1977).The positive links between SE and performance are widely reported in the literature and several studies have been carried out in a range of different settings.Chemers et al. (2001) conducted a longitudinal study involving first year university students in order to examine the effects of academic SE and optimism on students' academic performance, stress, health, and commitment to remain in school.The authors included several predictor variables (high school grade-point average, academic SE, and optimism) and moderator variables (academic expectations and self-perceived coping ability) in their study.These variables were measured at the end of the first academic quarter and were found to be related to classroom performance, personal adjustment, stress, and health.The study found that academic SE and optimism were strongly related to performance and adjustment.At the end, a direct impact of SE and optimism on academic performance was found.As for classroom performance, stress, health, overall satisfaction, and commitment to remain in school, the impact of SE and optimism was indirect and transited through expectations and coping perceptions.

Time Management
Time management is not a new concept.It has been discussed in the 1950s and 1960s, and several authors have proposed methods on how to handle time issues on the job (Drucker, 1967;Lakein, 1974;MacKenzie, 1972;McCay, 1959).It can be viewed as a way of monitoring and controlling time (Eilam & Aharon, 2003).In terms of definition, time management has been referred to as a technique for effective time use, especially having enough time to accomplish the many tasks required (Orpen, 1994;Slaven & Totterdell, 1993;Woolfolk & Woolfolk, 1986).Many also defined time management as techniques for managing time (Adams & Jex, 1997, 1999;Jex & Elacqua, 1999;Davis, 2000;Macan, Shahani, Dipboye & Philips, 1990;Macan, 1994Macan, , 1996;;Mudrack, 1997).Besides, Burt and Kemp (1994) and Francis-Smythe and Robertson (1999) referred it to as planning and allocating time.In addition, studies also defined it as the degree to which individuals perceive their use of time to be structured and purposive (Bond & Feather, 1988;Strongman & Burt, 2000;Vodanovich & Seib, 1997) and a technique to increase the time available to pursue activities (King et al., 1986).It is also mentioned as intended to maximize intellectual productivity (Britton & Tesser, 1991) and an application of self-regulation processes in the temporal domain (Griffiths, 2003).Other definitions include self-regulation strategies aimed at discussing plans, and their efficiency (Eilam & Aharon, 2003); coping behavior in at-risk populations (King et al., 1986); ways to assess the relative importance of activities through the development of a prioritization plan (Kaufman-Scarborough & Lindquist, 1999); the use of procedures that are designed to help the individual to achieve his or her desired goals (Hall & Hursch, 1982).Besides time management, time structure (Bond & Feather, 1988) is also used interchangeably with basically the same meaning.

Leisure Attitudes
People pursue leisure opportunities for different reasons and worth different levels of intensity, depending upon the nature of their needs, values and attitudes at any given time.Leisure can be pursued very intensely as an end in itself, perhaps compensating for dissatisfaction in other areas of life, such as work.On the other hand, leisure may be pursued as an expression of status in society (Edginton, Jordan, Degraaf & Edginton, 2002).What leisure is has to be conceptualized and defined from diverse perspective that reflects historical variations in the organization of societies, as well as in concepts of, and impingements upon, both freedom and pleasure (Godbey, 1989).Leisure has generally been perceived as free time and freely chosen activity.For an individual, the notion of "free time" means not being obligated to others in one's personal and institutional membership groups (Harrington & Dawson, 1995).Henderson (2001) defined leisure as "a quality of any experience that has element of choice and enjoyment associated with it".Leisure implies freedom and choice and is customarily used in a variety of ways, but chiefly to meet one's personal needs for reflection, self-enrichment, relaxation, or pleasure.

Emotional Intelligence and Psychographic Attributes
Based on the reviews of the related literatures, emotional intelligence and psychographic attributes are reported to be very relevant to students' academic achievement and their involvement in extra-curricular activities.Attention has been given to the problems that are perceived by university students.Such attention has motivated many researchers to investigate matters to understand the skills that are important to students' success.Consequently, researchers have provided students with skills and competencies which positively affect students' success in their university life experience.In addition, they have provided students with emotional intelligence competencies that have become a new mode of survival for students in all fields.Researchers have also accepted that the central objective of education is to help students learn how to think more effectively, manage their emotions, and communication with others.However, there is a consensus among researchers that emotional intelligence skills as well as individual differences are important factors in the student's learning process (Plog, 1994;Pascarella & Terenzini, 1989;Low & Nelson, 2005).EI skills are also important because they hold the key to understand how students handle their experience throughout university life.Thus, this study derives its importance from dealing with the subject of EI which is relatively modern topic.In addition, it has a major impact on academic success which could help students be more successful in their personal and professional lives.Moreover, this study could help decision makers establish an educational system that is appropriate in producing students who are equipped with both psychographic variables such as SE, time management, high level of motivation, social skills and EI skills to help them adapt and excel in their studies.

Sampling and Procedure
The population of this study was the listed potential first class undergraduate students in UUM.This group consisted of the students who obtained at least 3.50 of the CGPA within the duration of this study was conducted.Thus, they were referred to as potential first class students.Records from the Academic Affairs Department listed 3,939 potential first class students.The designed questionnaire was distributed to all students during the ceremony of the Dean's List Award; however only 424 students gave the feedbacks hence qualifying it as a convenience sample for analysis purposes.

Instruments Development
This study used a self-report questionnaire as the instrument to collect data.It comprised of three sections namely background of respondents, elements of EI, and elements of psychographic.The background section initiated some necessary information about the respondents such as gender, ethnicity, and other factors that may be beneficial for understanding differences in EI characteristics and psychographic attributes.The elements for measuring EI were developed following the instrument developed by Tapia (1998).The characteristics were measured using a four-point scale which was based on rank justification from (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3) agree and (4) strongly agree.There were52 questions which focussed on five EI characteristics, i.e. self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills.The Cronbach's alpha for the five subscales ranged from .828 to .852 and the combination of these scales was .895.
Meanwhile, the psychographic attributes were developed by adapting some standard resources to measure achievement motivation, SE, time management, and leisure attitude.The measurement scale comprised of 41 items using five-point Likert-type scale with the responses ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).The Cronbach's alpha for the psychographic scale in this study was .895.The details of measurements scale used in psychographics are as follows: 1) Achievement motivation-Scale for this attribute was adapted from Work and Family Orientation Questionnaire (WOFO) developed by Helmreich and Spence (1983).19 questions from WOFO assessed three main factors which included (a) 8 questions of mastery that looked into the preference for difficult and challenging tasks, (b) 6 questions of work that studied positive attitudes toward work and (c) 5 items of competitiveness that measured the desire to win in interpersonal situation.These questions were found satisfactory by Helmreich and Spence (1983) thus were adopted in this study.
2) General self-efficacy-The general SE measurement was developed by Schwarzer (1992).The measurements assessed a general sense of perceived SE with the aim in mind to predict coping with daily hassles as well as adaptation after experiencing all kinds of stressful life events.These measurements were also tested by Bandura (1982Bandura ( , 1986) ) and Schwarzer (1992) who both found that the scales were adequate to predict adaptation after life changes and became an indicator of quality of life at any point in time.It was very suitable with this study as the attribute is in agreement with the definition of SE as an individual's belief that he or she has the ability to perform at a specified level on a certain task.
3) Time Management-scale of this attribute was adapted from the Perceived Control of Time which was developed by Macan (1994).Four questions were used to assess the extent to which individuals believe that they can directly affect the way they manage their time.4) Leisure-In this study, leisure attitude was measured according to Raghed and Beard (1982) based on Leisure Attitude Scale.It covered a dimension of leisure called the cognitive components which comprised of eight questions.The related questions of cognitive components include such elements: (a) general knowledge and beliefs about leisure, (b) beliefs about leisure's relation to other concepts such as health, happiness, and work, and (c) beliefs about the qualities, virtues, characteristics, and benefits of leisure to individual such as: developing friendship, renewing energy, helping one to relax, meeting needs, self-improvement.

Profile of Sample
The sample of the first class students as detailed in Table 1 consisted of 69 males (17.1%) and 355 females (82.9%).Most of them ranged between the ages of 21 to 23 years.And they represented the actual representation of the average age of undergraduate students in UUM.In addition, half of them were Malays and almost 40.0% of the respondents were Chinese.Definitely, majority of the undergraduate students were single.

Relationship between Emotional Intelligence Dimensions
The study of relationship among the dimensions of EI attempted to understand how each of them reacted to each other.The measurement based on the Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficient was calculated and the results are tabulated in Table 2.The range of these strengths was from-0.132 to 0.716 excluding the diagonal value of unity.Any value that was close to either-1 or 1 indicated that the strength of relationship between two dimensions was strong while correlation value that was close to 0 indicated weak relationships.Pair of dimensions that were considered strong and significant correlation are marked with asterisks "*" depending on the type I error, α.From Table 4, all dimensions were significantly correlated except the motivation and social skills that did not show strong relationship.These results indicated that the potential first class students did not show good signal of the ability of motivating themselves to managing relationship with others such as understanding the emotions of their friends.Some correlation values in Table 4 showed positive sign which indicated the same direction of relationship.For example, the positive coefficient between self-awareness and empathy (r = 0.701) may reflect that if a student possesses high ability to recognize and understand his moods, emotions and drives hence he will show some capabilities to understand others' feelings.But, some correlation values were negative which indicated opposite direction of relationship such as between self-awareness and motivation (r = -0.132).This result reflected that as one has the capacity of being aware about one's own feeling, one often becomes aware of oneself but not necessarily enhances one's motivation of one's surroundings.In addition, the result indicated negative significant correlation between motivation and empathy (r = -0.108),which showed that the higher the motivation among potential students, the lower their empathy level towards others.

Relationship between Psychographic Attributes among Potential First Class
The strength of relationship among the psychographic characteristics which were measured in the Pearson coefficient is simplified in Table 3.The range of the strengths was from-0.003 to 0.618 excluding the diagonal value of unity and all the significant correlations are marked with asterisk "*".The table shows that time management characteristic did not correlate with other psychographic characteristics.Such result reflected students' attitude may not be directly affected by the way they manage their time.

Differences of the Effect of Age on the Psychographic Characteristics
Another MANOVA investigation found that there were significant differences between age groups based on self-efficacy subscale (F=4.587;p-value=.004), in which students over 30 years old have higher self-efficacy than the other three groups.Non-significant results between the groups of age were obtained from the achievement subscale (F=1.952,p-value=0.121),competitiveness subscale (F=1.131,p-value = 0.336), mastery skills subscale (F=1.216;p-value = 0.304), time management subscale (F = 0.944; p-value = 0.419), and leisure attitude subscale (F=1.653; p-value=0.177).As a summary, the details are listed in Table 4.

Differences of the Effect of Ethnic on the Psychographic Characteristics
Results of the investigation among the four ethnic groups are displayed in Table 5. Significant differences between ethnic groups were recorded for achievement subscale (F=23.108;p-value < 0.000), in which Malay students have greater mean scores than the other three groups.Also, it was found in competitiveness subscale (F=17.823,p-value < 0.000).in which other minority groups scored greater mean than the others, self-efficacy subscale (F=19.430;p-value < 0.000), in which the results of Post-hoc Turkey test showed that the Malay group scored significantly higher than the other three groups, and leisure attitude subscale (F=27.381;p-value < 0.000), in which the group of minority ethnics scored higher mean than the other three ethnic groups.Meanwhile, non-significant differences among the ethnics were discovered in mastery skills subscale (F=1.768;p-value = 0.153) and time management subscale (F=0.933;p-value = 0.425).

Relationship between EI and Psychographic Characteristic
The similar Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficient was used for measuring the correlation between EI and psychographic characteristics.The computed coefficient obtained the estimated coefficient as r = 0.503 (p-value < 0.000) which was significant.Such finding showed that the EI and psychographic characteristics were closely related in describing the segmentation of students..503(**) .000 1 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Conclusions and Discussion
In the previous sections of this study, emotional intelligence, psychographic and demographic variables were shown as essential factors identifying and reflecting students' success at the university.Emotional intelligence primarily determines the students' success at university.Furthermore, gender, age, ethnic, and psychographic variables such as self-efficacy, time management and motivation are important determinants of the student success at the university.The sample of the study consisted of 424 university students from one university in Kedah State.As a conclusion, this study reported the result of the descriptive profile of the respondents.
Outcomes of the study describe some characteristics of psychographics on the prospective students to assist in providing coaching and mentoring-by insuring students suited to their needs and desires for their study.Using those factors as a base, a researcher can determine how a particular group of students will respond to the intention of furthering their study.Thus, psychographics can offer greater insights into student behavior.
Advantages of studying psychographics: 1) Better inputs for the design of training that the students will like.
2) Lesser cost spent on scouting the right choice of candidate, as it is now more specific.
3) Easier to target a specific type of student and enhance a greater degree of student satisfaction.
Furthermore, in terms of study limitation, this study was limited to students from one university and focused only on potential first class students.Therefore, studies conducted at other universities or with students studying in other universities could likely yield different results.In addition, more than 87.45% of the respondents of this study were female.The number of female students who participated in this study was more than male students, this is not surprising since more females are enrolled in Malaysian educational institutions compared to male and that females averagely performed better than males.Therefore, gender is an issue in all studies conducted in college population in Malaysia.This is definitely a very important area for any future research on Malaysian students.Another limitation of this study is the fact that quantitative data is taken through self-report measures; therefore, there is ample chance that participants chose answers which were not their true experience (Creswell, 1994).From this study, we found out that our potential first class students are emotionally and psychologically prepared to undertake postgraduate studies in the future.With proper guidance, the prospective students are likely to succeed in their academic performance, emotion intelligence, and enhance psychological attributes at postgraduate level.As for recommendations for future research, this study recommends and proposes the following: Firstly, based on the limitation of the current study, ample opportunities are present for future research while using the same design and framework.Future researches should look into and study all public and private universities.Secondly, the study made effective use of quantitative methodology but would recommend that future researches use qualitative methods to shed light on student's perception of the effective strategies at the university.Finally, the study recommends on enlightening the students and the workshop members of the educational sector on the importance of emotional intelligence through the provision of emotional intelligence skills in the curriculum and the facilitation of emotional intelligence training sessions.In conclusion, as colleges and universities continue to develop courses and programs, the need to better understand factors that contribute to student success becomes increasingly important.Developing an effective response to this challenge will require educators to identify those factors which might increase student success.Research studies continue to uncover the importance of emotional intelligence, psychological factors and demographic factors as they relate to success students at university.Therefore, researchers should continue studying emotional intelligence factors, psychological constructs and demographic factors in order to develop more effective strategies which could improve student success, especially for university students.

Table 1 .
Profile of sample

Table 2 .
Correlations between EI dimensions

Table 3 .
Correlation between psychographic characteristics

Table 4 .
Result of MANOVA for age factor

Table 5 .
Result of MANOVA for ethnic factor

Table 6 .
Correlations between emotional intelligence and psychographic characteristics