Individuality in Commonality: A Comparative Study of Su Embroidery and Gu Embroidery Based on Online Retrieval of Museum Collections

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similarities and differences of Su embroidery and Gu embroidery in product types, raw materials, stitching techniques and artistic styles, and analyzes the influencing factors.

Quantity, Distribution, and Types of Su and Gu Embroidery Collections
In recent years, the improvement and enrichment of electronic resources in domestic museums has facilitated the development of related research by providing scholars with convenient methods of collection retrieval and 3D visualization for research perspectives. In this paper, the collection in major domestic museums (mainly in historical periods) are searched online. Considering the geographical location of the museums and the quantity and quality of the collections, nine museums are retrieved: The Palace Museum, the National Museum of China, the Nanjing Museum, the Shanghai Museum, the Zhejiang Provincial Museum, the Liaoning Provincial Museum, China National Silk Museum, the Suzhou Museum and the Suzhou Silk Museum. Due to the large distribution of the collections, in addition to the aforementioned museums, domestic museums such as Nantong Museum, China Museum of Embroidery and Taipei Palace Museum, as well as overseas museums such as the British Museum, Metropolitan Museum of Art and others also have collections of Su and Gu embroidery. Due to the limited scope of this article, only the online collections of the above nine representative museums are used as samples.
Two principles should be followed in the "deconstruction -research -recombination" of collections: 1) Statistical analysis of the number, distribution, and variety of collections: wide and extensive. Using the collections available online at the nine museums as a sample reflects the comprehensiveness of the retrieval and does not require the completeness of the collected information. In this paper, only embroidery categories, times, and names need to be extracted.
2) Statistical analysis of the raw materials, stitching techniques, and themes of collections: refined and specialized. Based on principle (1), the accuracy, completeness, and professionalism of sample information are required. The collection should be equipped with pictures and textual descriptions, including the name of the collection, time, materials, patterns, colors, techniques and other information, similar to the information extracted from the eleven-sided Tang Ka of Su embroidery in the Palace Museum. (Figure 1) The reasons for this phenomenon are as follows: (1) The influence of geographical location. Both Su embroidery and Gu embroidery have the largest collections in their localities.
(2) The difference in influence. As the head of the four famous embroideries, Su embroidery enjoys a great reputation at home and abroad. It is more extensive than Gu either in the number of collections or in the geographical location. Differences in the historical evolution of Su embroidery and Gu embroidery, as well as difficulties in obtaining or collecting embroidery products, have led to differences in the number of collections at different periods. The similarities and differences in the origin, development, prosperity, and decline of the two have been discussed in detail in Su Embroidery in Wu Region (Sun, 2009), History of Chinese Embroidery (Sun, 2007), and Research on Gu Embroidery (Xu, 2004), and will not be repeated in this study.

Collection Quantity and Time Distribution
The longer the history of embroidery, the more difficult the embroidery could be found and preserved. It can be seen that the number of collections in the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties is less than that in the Qing Dynasty and modern times; ornamental embroidery is better preserved and easier to collect than practical embroidery. Most of Gu's collection is ornamental embroidery, which is more convenient to preserve, while some of Su's utilitarian products are not well preserved.

Results: Su Embroidery Has More Varieties Than Gu Embroidery
Based on the different makers, users, artistic styles, and product uses, collections of Su and Gu embroidery from historical periods are divided into two categories: court embroidery and folk embroidery, which includes boudoir embroidery, household embroidery and commercial embroidery. (Table 1)   (Yang, Tang & Su, 2011). Boudoir embroidery is the main type of Gu embroidery, but the change in the usage of Gu embroidery in the late Ming Dynasty gradually increased its proportion in the market. The collection of Su embroidery is diverse, including court embroidery (42%), boudoir embroidery (31%), household embroidery (14%), and commodity embroidery (13%). (Figure 4)

Reason: Differences in the Use of Embroidery
By comparing the two, Gu embroidery is dominated by boudoir embroidery and commodity embroidery, while Su is rich in boudoir, commodity, household embroidery and court embroidery. Su embroidery was originally developed as a utilitarian product, so household embroidery in folk has always existed. Gu embroidery has been appreciated from the beginning. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, due to the decline of the Gu family, the stimulation of the commodity economy, and the change of inheritance mode, commodity embroidery was developed. In addition, Suzhou as one of the local weaving bureaus (Suzhou Weaving and Dyeing Bureau) for official weaving in the Ming and Qing dynasties, "The imperial dress and four seasons clothes, the palace, and the prince and princess's court clothes, are handed over to Jiangning, Suzhou, Hangzhou Weaving following the standard style of the Etiquette Department." 「御用礼服及四时衣服、各宫及皇子公主朝服衣服，均依礼部 定式， 移交江宁、 苏州、 杭州三处织造恭进。 」 (Kungang, 1976) According to the style, color, and material given by the Ministry of the Interior, they made clothes, ceremonial articles, interior decorations, coverlets, etc. As a result, court embroidery in Su was proportionally larger than that in Gu.

Reason: Requirements for Embroidery Purposes, the Combination of Stitches and Base Materials, the Differences in Popular Varieties
Silk is preferred to be used as the base material for Su and Gu embroidery, with its advantages in strength, luster, aesthetic degree, cultural and spiritual influence. Other factors, including the requirements for embroidery purposes, the combination of stitches and base materials, and the differences in popular varieties in historical periods also affect the selection.
1) Requirements for embroidery purposes: Gu embroidery, which is mainly used for ornamental hanging screens, table screens, albums, decorations, etc., requires a high degree of luster and aesthetic, but does not require a high degree of practicality in the embroidery base material. Ling (绫) is the most common base material in Gu embroidery. Shiming (释名) said: "Damask, Ling also, its pattern as ice damask." It is generally considered that damask is a silk fabric with twill or varying twill as the basis. In addition, silk fabrics with varying amounts of satin or irregular weft floating on the surface of the twill can also be called damask (Zhu, 1997). Due to the relationship of floating lines, the appearance of Ling has a bright and dazzling ice luster, and the aesthetic and luster meet the requirements of Gu embroidery as an ornamental product.
The practical products of Su embroidery put forward certain requirements on the mechanical properties of base materials. Satin, also known as Duan (缎) or Zhusi (纻丝) (Wu, 1984 2) The combination of stitches and base materials: The most representative is the matching relationship between Nasha (纳纱), Chuosha (戳纱) stitches and Sha (纱), Luo (罗). Sha is a light, thin, plain woven fabric with a small diameter warp and weft, sparsely arranged, and a uniform distribution of holes on the fabric surface. Luo twists each other to form pepper holes in the fabric's surface, giving it a thin, light, transparent appearance. Nasha and Chuosha use a straight vertical needle, to embroider groups of patterns on the ground of a square-eyed base material (Sha or Luo) in the way of a multigrid. While the Nasha needs to be embroidered all over, the Chuosha can only be embroidered with patterns that leave the ground. Representative collections include The Moon White Diameter Nasha Embroidered Garment with Floral Patterns (月白直径地纳纱花卉单衣) (Qing, The Palace Museum) and The Nasha Embroidered Purse (纳纱绣花荷包) (Qing, Suzhou Silk Museum).
3) Differences in popular varieties: Most of the foundation material of the Han Dynasty were Juan (绢) and Qi (绮). During the Tang Dynasty, Ling was the dominant material in embroidery. The base material for Song embroidery was preferred to the Luo, which can be confirmed by the five pieces of embroidery from the Northern Song Dynasty in the Suzhou Museum. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Ling and Duan were the main products. Advances in silkworm breeding, reeling, spinning, and weaving contributed to the rise of new silk varieties. Moreover, the development of weaving looms provided a guarantee for the craft. Chinese looms have experienced the evolution of cross-stitch machines, pole-weaving machines, multi-hedged rod machines, multi-hedged and multi-lever machines, beading machines, weft machines, and Zhang velvet machines. Special divisions of the loom made Jin, Duan, Qi, Ling, Sha, Luo, and other varieties more elaborate. Based on the completeness and accuracy of the retrieval results, 76 pieces of Gu embroidery and 90 pieces of Su embroidery can be analyzed through online retrieval from nine museum collections. Gu embroidery uses large quantities of silk thread, gold and silver thread, plied thread, hair, and horse hair for specific purposes; Su embroidery is mainly composed of silk thread, with gold and silver thread accounting for a large proportion. In addition, it also uses rice beads, knitted thread (Note 3), and horse hair. (Table 3) Silk thread, the basic thread used in Gu and Su embroidery, is soft and clean, has a good sheen, and can be split as required for embroidery products. The decorative effects of gold and silver thread and rice beads are strong, and when used, the embroidery products appear gorgeous and noble. They were widely used in Su's palace embroidery to meet the demands of aristocratic luxury and to highlight the psychology of hierarchy. Hair embroidery refers to a style of embroidery that uses human hair as thread instead of other materials.

Results: Similarities in Stitch Names and Systems, Differences in Application Proportions and Selection of Special Stitches
Through online retrieval of nine museum collections, 71 pieces of Gu embroidery and 72 pieces of Su embroidery can be analyzed according to the completeness and accuracy of the retrieval results (Note 4). There are 26 widely used stitches in Gu embroidery, such as overlap stitch, roll stitch, plain stitch, stitch with borrow or complement color, split stitch, etc. Su embroidery mainly uses 32 stitching techniques, including overlap stitch, plain stitch, roll stitch, split stitch, block shading stitch, etc. (Figure 6) The common stitches are overlap stitch, plain stitch, roll stitch, and split stitch. Su embroidery has a higher proportion of satin stitch, seeded embroidery, lock stitch, plain gold embroidery, and coiling stitch with golden thread compared to Gu embroidery, which uses borrow or complement color stitch, long and short stitch, overlap stitch, split stitch, sparse stitch, and scaling stitch. Three blue embroidery, simulation embroidery, random-stitch embroidery, void and solid stitch, clip and paste embroidery, and striped embroidery with knitted thread are the characteristics of Su embroidery, while counting stitch, brocade stitch, lattice stitch, and ice pattern stitch

Artistic Style
Based on different artistic styles, embroidery is abstract, decorative, and aesthetic. Plain stitch, block shading stitch, and lock stitch are smooth and have strong abstract and decorative effects. With a strong gradient effect, long and short stitch, overlap stitch, sparse stitch, and split stitch are suitable for decorative and artistic embroidery products. The magnificence of plain gold embroidery, coiling and couching stitch with golden thread, and beading embroidery can satisfy the requirements of special effects. One of the features of Gu embroidery is the picturesque embroidery, which makes it possible to apply stitch with borrow or complement color to supplement the deficiencies of the needle.
As a result, due to the diverse artistic styles presented by Gu and Su embroidery, their preferences for stitching methods differ. Gu embroidery tends to be more artistic with long and short stitch, overlap stitch, sparse stitch, scaling stitch, and satin stitch. At the same time, Su embroidery uses plain stitch, overlap stitch, lock stitch, plain gold embroidery, and coiling stitch with golden thread to form abstract and decorative styles.

Production Time
The production time affects the choice of stitches by the embroiderer. Commodity and household embroidery in folk embroidery are made by common urban and rural women or women in embroidery workshops, requiring a short process time and quick completion for use or trade. Exquisite and fine stitching is not suitable for this type, whereas strong performance and short production times are more suitable for plain stitch, block shading stitch, seeded embroidery, clip and paste embroidery, chain embroidery, and inlaying stitch. This type of stitches is often used in Su's household and commodity embroidery. Boudoir embroidery and court embroidery emphasize the artistic effect and fineness of the embroidery product, with no particular requirements on the use of time, so they are often used to complete fine stitches such as long and short stitch, overlap stitch, satin stitch, etc. The picturesque Gu embroidery and Su court embroidery take a long time to produce.

Special Stitches
In addition, three blue embroidery, stimulation embroidery, random-stitch embroidery, and void and solid stitch in Su embroidery were the innovative methods during the late Qing Dynasty and modern times. The striped embroidery with knitted threads is found in The Bright Yellow Satin Embroidered Robe with Eight Phoenixes Holding Golden Shou Figure

Results: Su Embroidery is Abundant in Subjects, Gu Embroidery is Based on Painting
Through online retrieval of nine museum collections, 71 pieces of Gu embroidery and 72 pieces of Su embroidery can be analyzed according to the completeness and accuracy of the retrieval results. (Table 6) According to the content, embroidery themes can be divided into individual or combined patterns that express auspicious meanings, such as plant, animal, geometric, and implement patterns; characters, landscapes, flowers and birds, story scenes taken from paintings or photographic works; other types. Gu embroidery is based on story scenes (42%), flowers and birds (37%), characters (34%), landscapes (15%), and others (1%) in paintings or photographs. The themes of Su embroidery are widely distributed, including plant (47%), animal (46%), geometric (25%), and implement patterns (18%), as well as characters (33%), flowers and birds (8%) and landscapes (7%) taken from paintings or photography.

Reason: The Expression of Auspicious Meanings and the Influence of Different Painting Schools
Su embroidery covers a wider range of subjects than Gu embroidery. In addition to landscapes, characters, flowers, birds, and story scenes, Su embroidery also employs a significant proportion of auspicious motifs, which are presented in Su embroidery for practical purposes as individuals or in combinations. Those patterns are elegant, bright, and lovely, containing people's expectations for a better life, like The Embroidered Purse with Double Lion Snowball Patterns (双狮滚雪球绣花荷包) (Qing, Suzhou Silk Museum).
The boudoir embroidery, some of the commodity embroidery in Su embroidery, and Gu embroidery all use Chinese paintings as manuscripts, which vividly show characters, landscapes, flowers and birds, and story scenes. Remarkable aesthetic effects are a common feature of both embroideries, but there are differences: Firstly, the composition of Su embroidery is splendid, orderly, and delicate, imitating the "Wumen Painting School" (吴门 画派) represented by Shen Zhou, Wen Zhengming, Tang Yin, Qiu Ying, and Zhang Hong. Under the deep influence of meticulous painting, Su embroidery mainly focuses on characters, story scenes, flowers and birds, and landscapes. Secondly, Gu embroidery seeks the rendering effect of traditional Chinese painting, learning from nature and spirit. Influenced by the "Huating Painting School" (华亭画派) represented by Dong Qichang in the late Ming Dynasty, Gu embroidery takes ancient famous paintings as sketches and draw from the story scenes, flowers and birds, characters, and landscapes.

The Inheritance of Commonality and the Manifestation of Individuality
Based on the above statistical analysis of Su and Gu embroidery collections, and combined with relevant literature records, this paper summarizes the similarities and differences between the two in terms of historical development, embroidery types, selection of raw materials, technical characteristics, and artistic styles. (Table 7)

Conclusion
Su embroidery and Gu embroidery were selected as the first representative projects of China's intangible cultural heritage in 2006, injecting new vitality into their protection, inheritance and innovation in modern society. Tracing the historical evolution, analyzing their stylistic characteristics and mutual relations can provide a theoretical basis for their protection and inheritance. Through online retrieval of the collections in nine museums, combined with the literature records, this paper conducts a study of "deconstruction-research-recombination", and draws the following conclusions: (1) Su embroidery and Gu embroidery showed the characteristics of "Individuality in Commonality" with the evolution of the historical process. Both were located in the southern part of the Yangtze River, inheriting a well-established needlework system from the Tang and Song dynasties, and were influenced by Wu culture. The embroidery style shows part of "Commonality".
(2) Su embroidery gradually developed into a fine and elegant style over more than 2,000 years. 400 years of ups and downs make Gu embroidery emerge the characteristics of elegant and pleasant. Su embroidery and Gu embroidery are characterized by their historical development, embroidery types, raw materials, technical features and artistic styles. Differences in history, social culture, textile technology, use of embroidery products, and producers shape the "Individuality" of Su embroidery and Gu embroidery. Uniqueness and individuality separate them into two independent embroidery categories.

Funding
This paper is supported by "The Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities", Donghua University (Grant Number: 2232022E-16).
relationship between the floating lines. Duan (缎), or satin, a variety of floral and plain fabrics based on satin.
The warp and weft are denser, the texture is thicker, and the surface of the floating long lines is longer and more lustrous. Chou (绸) was an important type of silk fabric in ancient China, and was particularly popular during the Ming and Qing dynasties. It uses plain or twill weave to form plain silk without patterns or woven silk with patterns. It has a fine, thick texture and better thermal properties. Juan (绢), plain fabrics with a light, thin texture have a simple, elegant appearance with less variation in color. By taking advantage of the difference in thickness and density of warp and weft silk, combined with different weaving techniques, it is possible to form a variety of different style characteristics, such as light, thin, fine, thick, coarse, surface wrinkled, flowery. Sha (纱), light and thin plain fabrics, with small diameters of warp and weft, are sparsely arranged, and the surface of the fabric shows a uniform distribution of holes. Luo (罗) twists each other to form pepper holes in the fabric's surface, giving it a thin, light, transparent appearance. Qi (绮), a floral fabric developed on a plain ground, woven in twill and then dyed, has a simple construction, soft sheen and touch. Jin (锦), also known as brocade, is a multicolored silk fabric with a double weave, using a double warp or weft organization, with rich color variations, mostly above two colors. It can be divided into warp brocade with changes in longitude and weft brocade with changes in latitude.
Note 3. Knitted thread, also known as the dragon-post thread. It is made by twisting two strands of silk, one of which is strengthened to form a uniform grain, which is used to show the edge contours of a dragon's fin or beaded embroidery pattern.
Note 4. A stitch in which a pattern is layered with a short plain stitch.
Overlap stitch taozhen 套针 Different shades of color are interleaved and interlaced from front to back, so that the shades of color harmonize and transition naturally.
Long and short stitch changduanzhen 长短针 Long and short lines are intermingled, the latter stitched more than the middle of the former, with uneven edges, and a diffuse embroidery from the inside to the outside.

Lock stitch suoxiu 锁绣
A chain of loops. The embroidery pattern is full of three-dimensional sense, the visual effect is thick, and the embroidery products are strong and durable.

Satin stitch puzhen 铺针
Use a long straight needle to embroider the pattern, allowing the thread to lie flat on the embroidery surface before applying or cutting over it as necessary. Split stitch jiezhen 接针 Short needles with equal threads are connected back and forth for continuous embroidery.

Roll stitch gunzhen 滚针
The second needle is punctured (not from the middle) at the third of the first needle next to the embroidery thread of the first needle, and the stitches are hidden under the first needle.

Spinning stitch xuanzhen 旋针
With split or roll stitch roundabout rotations and embroidery, the whole line is rotated like this.

Seeded embroidery dazixiu 打籽绣
The embroidery thread is wound in a circle on the needle, forming a small keloid knot in the near-root prick below, with points forming the surface.

Plain gold embroidery pingjinxiu 平金绣
The gold thread is the spreading thread, the silk thread is the nail thread, and the nail thread between the rows are separated from each other in the shape of an osmanthus flower, until the embroidery is full.
Coiling stitch with golden thread panjinxiu 盘金绣 Based on a silk embroidery pattern, one or two strands of gold thread are looped back and forth together and added to the edge of the embroidered or unembroidered pattern to form a definite pattern, and the edge is pinned with nail thread.
Couching stitch with golden thread dingjinxiu 钉金绣 Embroidery is made by stitching gold and silver threads to the surface of silk with another silk thread, which is tied to the gold thread to form a pattern.

Sparse stitch shizhen 施针
The needle is used on top of other needle methods, which are sparse but not dense, with forked, flexible, non-uniform, and other features.

Scaling stitch kelinzhen 刻鳞针
Use long and short stitch, or overlap stitch or block shading stitch and prick stitch to represent feather scales.
Sparse stitch (feathery) shimaozhen 施毛针 Use the sparse stitch to embroider hair-like patterns.
Chicken feather stitch jimaozhen 鸡毛针 The lines are arranged in herringbone or cross shape, and are mainly used for embroidery of flat flowers, leaves and chicken feathers at the tip.

Prick stitch zhazhen 扎针
The first layer is embroidered with a plain stitch, and then a short needle is run through the plain stitch, like a tie, and finally tied into the pattern of a bird's claw.
Counting stitch (full) nashaxiu 纳纱绣 Using a straight vertical needle, to embroider groups of patterns on the ground of a square-eyed base material (sha or luo) in the way of a multigrid. It needs to be embroidered all over.
Counting stitch (unfilled) chuoshaxiu 戳纱绣 Using a straight vertical needle, to embroider groups of patterns on the ground of a square-eyed base material (sha or luo) in the way of a multigrid. Usually only embroidery patterns, leaving the ground.
Clip and paste embroidery tiexiu 贴绣 Cotton, satin, and damask are cut to the desired shape according to the pattern, and then nail together to form the pattern, thus giving it a three-dimensional appearance.

Inlaying stitch xiangxiu 镶绣
During embroidery, the holes are trimmed according to the pattern, and various patterns are embroidered in different ways in the holes.

Matting stitch dianxiu 垫绣
To make the embroidery three-dimensional and raised, first cushion the bottom with cotton thread, cloth, cotton or hemp rope material, and after the cotton is fixed, embroider.
Striped embroidery with knitted thread jixianxiu 缉线绣 Use the knitted thread as the embroidery thread, and then use another kind of thread to nail the knitted thread flat on the base material, or hook the edges, or embroider.

Stitch with bead chuanzhuxiu 穿珠绣
The details of the embroidery are decorated with pearls, coral beads, wide pieces, and other decorative materials, which serve as finishing touches.
Stitch with horse hair mazongxiu 马鬃绣 Embroidery with horsehair as a special material.
Three blue embroidery sanlanxiu 三蓝绣 Three blue embroidery uses a variety of different shades of blue thread to embroider at certain levels and proportions, and the embroidered patterns are fresh and elegant.
Stitch with borrow or complement color jiese/ buse xiu 借色补色绣 Borrowing the color of an embroidery material to reduce embroidery work is known as borrowed color embroidery; integrating the use of embroidery and painting techniques is called complementary color embroidery.

Void and solid stitch xushizhen 虚实针
Depending on the brightness of the light, embroider separately with a solid needle. The dark side of the object must be sufficiently embroidered, that is, with the solid needle; When bright, it is embroidered with short stitches. The rows are sparser, the lines are thinner, the colors are lighter and the brightest spots are unembroidered, that is, with the void needle.

Simulation embroidery fangzhenxiu 仿真绣
The work is endowed with a strong sense of substance through the density configuration of the stitching, the increasing order of the layers and the collocation of the colors.

Random-stitch embroidery luanzhenxiu 乱针绣
Based on traditional embroidery, it uses a random-stitch embroidery method with crisscrossed stitches, following the principles of Western painting, such as brushwork and perspective.

Netting embroidery wangzhen 网针
There are three types of stitch organization: horizontal, straight, and oblique. Continuous geometric schemes such as triangles, diamonds, and hexagons are formed by embroidery in different directions, and then

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