Applied Physics Research, Issue: Vol.18, No.1

The Electric Field Equations in General Relativity

Fri, 03 Apr 2026 06:34:58 +0000

This paper examines the intricate intersection between particle physics and cosmology by presenting an innovative framework for understanding how neutron decay influences the evolution of the universe. By extending principles analogous to Einstein’s field equations for gravitational dynamics, the electric field equations proposed here illustrate how mass-energy distorts the fabric of spacetime. This distortion mirrors the curvature induced by gravitational fields and establishes a direct, interdependent relationship between electric and gravitational phenomena. Within this paradigm, the decay of a neutron into a proton is conceptualized as a localized perturbation within the cosmic fabric, producing universal effects that scale coherently from microcosmic particle interactions to the macrocosmic evolution of the cosmos.

Key findings reveal a notable alignment between neutron-decay dynamics and fundamental cosmological parameters, including the age of the universe, the Hubble constant, and the radius of the observable universe. The computed values—13.8 billion years, 70.783 km/s/Mpc, and 46.3 billion light-years—underscore the profound interplay between particle-level processes and cosmological expansion. The universe’s energy-density content is also evaluated, identifying contributions from dark energy (ΩΛ=0.709), total matter (Ωm=0.298), and curvature (Ωk=0.007).

The article further highlights interconnections between major cosmic horizons—specifically the Hubble horizon, the cosmic event horizon, the dark matter horizon, and the particle horizon—demonstrating how these boundaries are tied to the universe’s expansion and the emergence of large-scale structure. Certain energy relationships, particularly those linking neutron decay to the formation of cosmic structures, suggest a deeper, still-unexplored connection between particle physics and broader cosmological evolution.

In conclusion, this paper proposes a promising direction for future research by examining free-neutron decay at distinct stages of cosmic history, from the primordial formation of quarks to the emergence of protons. Such models may yield transformative insights into how fundamental particle interactions shape the universe’s origins and ongoing expansion.

Exchangeability, Si! Entanglement, No!

Fri, 03 Apr 2026 06:39:23 +0000

Schrödinger’s coinage of particle entanglement is deconstructed to pertain merely to the exchangeability of quantum probabilities, which is fundamental to their specification. I display the space of all exchangeable distributions over a pair of ±1 random variables geometrically, and identify the quantum distributions within it. These constitute a line dividing the plane of exchangeable distributions that sit within the space of all coherent distributions. The quantum line intersects the full manifold of independent distributions in one unique point. However, there is nothing otherwise unusual about the quantum distributions ... surely nothing that suggests any entanglement of the particles themselves. Rather, the distributions represent symmetric uncertainties about the conditions of particle behavior. This is a common feature of scientific inference about observable behaviour at any scale. The presentation continues to display the regions of increasing extendability of exchangeable distributions, so to characterize the extendability of two particle quantum analysis. The analysis resolves the issues that were addressed in the GHSZ investigations, which have been found to be mistaken. Rather than being peculiar to quantum theory, the exchangeable quantum distributions are shown to be applicable to distributions of physical mechanics at all scales, including those of a bowling ball and agricultural experimentation. The touted property of quantum particle entanglement is a misnomer. Einstein’s view of quantum probabilities as representing symmetric uncertainty about the relevance of supplementary variables finds technical support.

From Four Codons to Three Codons in the Genetic Code

Fri, 03 Apr 2026 06:42:53 +0000

In this study, starting from a system of four codons, we demonstrate that the traditional framework of the genetic code, structured in three codons, is associated with the corresponding amino acids. We argue that our formalism can be connected with a geometric scenario, establishing a link between the four codons and the Riemann tensor of general relativity, a model for theory of gravity.

Derivation of the Strong Interaction Scenario in the Electromagnetic Framework of Bridge Theory

Fri, 03 Apr 2026 06:45:37 +0000

The presented model reproduces the typical phenomenology of hadronic interaction realized by the emergence of a superposition of Coulomb and electromagnetic forces within dipoles formed by pairs of quarks. By analysing the quanta-mediated energy exchange between quarks that characterize the formation energies of DEMS in Bridge Theory, it is verified that their behaviour is very similar to that predicted for gluons. The model also allows to estimate the mass energies associated with up and down quarks and their corresponding strong coupling constants. The mass values obtained agree with both experimental values and QCD lattice simulations, suggesting that the strong interaction could be interpreted as a secondary electromagnetic effect that would lead to a framework of unification of strong and electromagnetic forces at each energy scale. A systematic method for the assembly of baryons is also proposed, from which the structural properties of the assembled particle are derived.

The Unified Mechanism of Cosmic and Material Structure Based on the Ideal Model of Cosmic Continuum

Fri, 03 Apr 2026 06:47:33 +0000

The two pillars of modern physics, relativity and quantum mechanics, are incompatible with each other, creating a divide between macroscopic and microscopic physical theories. This research proposed dark particle hypothesis, filled gap on minimum existence quantity particle; discovered new equivalence principle, bridged differences in foundation of physics; and establishes the relative continuum, constructing an ideal model of cosmic continuum. In this model, regardless of scale—macro or micro—any cosmic system is a continuum relative to the wavelength of bosonic energy waves, and the cosmic and material structure have a unified physical mechanism. The study revealed deep essence of cosmic and material structure, provides new perspectives on the fundamental problems of physics and cosmology. Firstly, it elucidated the physical mechanism of bosons in fundamental interactions. Secondly, it reconstructed the understanding of the basic unit of the cosmic and material structure. Thirdly, it updated the inherent concepts about the existence form and existence dimension. Fourthly, it restored the causality truth of wave function collapse in quantum mechanics.

A Dynamical Origin of Wave-Particle Duality From Stochastic Mass-Energy Interconversion

Wed, 08 Apr 2026 07:27:47 +0000

Wave-particle duality remains one of the most conceptually unresolved features of quantum mechanics. Although the quantum formalism predicts interference and localization phenomena with great precision, it provides no physical account of how a single quantum object exhibits both behaviors. In this work, a dynamical mechanism for wave-particle duality is proposed based on spontaneous stochastic mass-energy interconversion at subatomic scales. By allowing inertial mass to fluctuate in accordance with Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence, a modified Schrödinger dynamics is obtained in which stochastic variations in kinetic energy generate path-dependent phase accumulation. Applied to the double-slit experiment, the framework shows that quantum interference arises from coherent kinetic-phase dynamics, while particle-like localization emerges naturally at detection without invoking observer-dependent collapse.

The formalism yields closed-form expressions for interference visibility, predicts a characteristic dependence of coherence loss on particle mass, momentum, and flight time, and admits a transparent path-integral interpretation. Crucially, the theory is explicitly falsifiable: existing neutron and atom interferometry experiments already place stringent upper bounds on the strength of mass-energy fluctuations, and next-generation interferometers can directly test the predicted scaling. The results provide a physically grounded account of wave-particle duality that preserves the standard quantum formalism while making clear, experimentally testable predictions.

Quantum Space Foam Dynamics and the Emergence of Galactic Dark Matter Halos

Wed, 08 Apr 2026 07:29:42 +0000

The persistent discrepancy between luminous matter and galactic dynamics continues to motivate the search for the physical origin of dark matter halos. Conventional cold dark matter (CDM) models successfully reproduce large-scale structure but remain challenged by the absence of direct particle detection and small-scale anomalies such as the core–cusp problem. In this work, we propose a novel theoretical framework in which dark matter halos arise from localized spins within quantum space foam. Space-time is treated as a vibrating continuum at the Planck scale, where fluctuations generate long-lasting spin-like excitations. These spins exhibit curl and divergent energy flux components, with the curl flux forming rotational fields that aggregate to produce halo-scale gravitational effects. The model is tested by applying the curl energy flux formalism to a Milky Way–like galaxy and comparing the derived outcomes with established halo models. Using the Navarro–Frenk–White (NFW) profile as a benchmark, the density distribution ρ(r), enclosed mass M(r), gravitational potential Φ(r), and circular velocity vc(r) are computed. The results reproduce key observational signatures, including the flat rotation curves of spiral galaxies and the asymptotic behavior of halo mass profiles. This approach provides a conceptual bridge between quantum fluctuations of space-time and astrophysical halo phenomena, offering an alternative to particle-based CDM scenarios. While limitations remain—particularly the absence of direct experimental validation, the framework highlights the potential of space-foam dynamics as an emergent origin of galactic halos. Future work will focus on extending the model to diverse mass regimes and identifying testable predictions unique to the spin-based mechanism.

Majorana Spinor (SM) or Neutrino (v) or Neutral Electron (e°): SM ≡ v ≡ e°

Wed, 08 Apr 2026 07:31:41 +0000

As is well known, the third particle of Neutron β-decay, later named neutrino (v), was hypothesised by Pauli to compensate for the conspicuous energy-mass gap, equal to 0.78281 MeV, emerging from the disintegration of the neutron. To this end, while safeguarding the various Conservation Laws, this third particle had to be free of electric charges and had to have the same spin and mass as the electron.

Subsequently, in line with gauge theories, the scientific community assigned a zero mass to all particles, including v, thus leaving the mass gap unjustifiably unresolved.

In our opinion, on the contrary, in order to compensate for this mass gap and satisfy all of Pauli's requirements, the third particle could be represented by an electron, but without electric charge, i.e. a neutral electron (e°).

Subsequently, Majorana's sophisticated mathematical formalism showed that the 'hypothetical v' could be represented by a self-conjugated massive particle with half-integer spin but no electric charge, i.e. a neutral spinor, later called the Majorana particle or Majorana spinor (S_M).

Furthermore, as Maiani reports, the neutrinos we observe should be very light Majorana particles, which, as explained in the article, could coincide with a neutral electron.

Unbound Low-Energy Nucleons as Semiclassical Quantum Networks

Wed, 08 Apr 2026 07:36:31 +0000

We propose that quarks and gluon flux tubes emerge from networks of standing vacuum waves. Each unbound nucleon, in its ground state, may be electromagnetically modeled as massless quantized charge on two pairs of orbiting arcs. Each charge arc is associated with a vacuum fundamental harmonic rotating both poloidally and toroidally. These vacuum fundamental harmonics are coupled to nucleon mass-energy. A mechanism is proposed whereby unbound ground state nucleons continually regenerate their mass and charge. The charge arcs orbit on the two surfaces of a spindle torus with polar charge-exclusion zones. These ground-state models of unbound nucleons may be interpreted as two pairs of virtual Möbius bands. The optimal triangular Möbius band may explain proton uniqueness. These unbound proton and neutron models are shown to be precisely connected via a parameter dependent on neutron mass and the sum of the up and down quark masses during low energy weak interactions. Due to this precise connection, and the relatively high experimental precision of proton magnetic moment, neutron magnetic moment is calculated about two orders of magnitude more precisely than the most accurate experiments to date. This quantum network-based approach to modeling unbound low-energy nucleons calculates several other measurable parameters. This includes utilizing precise lepton vacuum interaction data to develop independent phenomenological proton and neutron vacuum interaction models accurate to 7 digits.

The Reason Which There Can Be Electron in the Atom Stably

Tue, 21 Apr 2026 02:16:09 +0000

"As for Bohr, the motion of electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom had to do assumption not to emit the electromagnetic wave. Otherwise the electron does screw motion according to classical electrodynamics and comes across an atomic nucleus extremely within a short time." (Wichmann, 1971) This article reports proof of the hypothesis of Bohr mentioned above. I indicate the concept which I brought in newly for this proof below. I express the electron as the matter wave in (17). m expresses a mass of electrons here. I express it as equation expressing the change of the mass of electrons in (31). It is expected from (31) that a mass of electrons changes for distance R between electron and the atomic nucleus.

The Concept of MOND in Space Theory

Sat, 18 Apr 2026 13:53:29 +0000

In the history of physics, whenever there is a discrepancy between experimental observations and the predictions of a theory, to explain the discrepancy either a hitherto undiscovered additional mass is suggested to exist or it is suggested to modify the theory used for the predictions. An example for the former type is the discovery of the planet Neptune and the example for the second type is the development of Quantum Mechanics instead of Newtonian Mechanics. For the last fifty years, in the field of Astro-Physics, a discrepancy prevails between the experimentally observed dynamical parameters of an orbiting star in a galaxy and the corresponding values calculated by Newton’s Law of gravity, the former being always greater than the later. To resolve the discrepancy, a group of scientists suggested the existence of yet undiscovered matter with peculiar properties and another group of scientists suggested a modification of Newton’s law of gravity with no need to assume hidden matter. The former suggestion has come to be called Dark-Matter hypothesis and the latter as Modification of Newtonian Dynamics (MOND concept). Recently our Space Theory, using the concept of attenuation of dark energy showed how the Newtonian Law of Gravity gets modified. Using the modified expression which we have named Vethathirian Law of Gravity (VLG), we have discussed in this paper the above mentioned discrepancy for three different galaxies. It is gratifying to note that the curves given by the VLG very well compares with the experimental curves for three cases without a need for yet to be discovered dark matter.

Constructing the Fundamental Principles of Special Relativity and Quantum Mechanics Using the Principle of Minimum Energy

Sat, 18 Apr 2026 13:57:16 +0000

This article uses the principle of minimum energy to derive the basic relationship for constructing Special relativity, and further derives the basic equations for constructing Quantum mechanics.

Lorentz Transformation and Minkowski Spacetime Would Give Two Different Theories of Special Relativity

Sat, 18 Apr 2026 14:02:54 +0000

This paper critiques the established loss of simultaneity in special relativity which comes from Minkowski diagrams. Einstein's original thought experiment, with a train (observer M’), an embankment (observer M) and simultaneous lightnings, will become our test. For our purpose, lightnings will become photons. By applying the two postulates of special relativity (speed of light and principle of relativity), the paper shows that simultaneity should be observed by both observers. This would imply a superposition of some kind, as the photons meet simultaneously M and M’ while they are not at the same position. By using Lorentz invariance (therefore pure calculation), the conclusion of simultaneity for both observers will be confirmed. The superposition could be a quantum superposition.

Temporal Distribution of EPBs Occurrence Using Seven West African GPS Stations

Fri, 24 Apr 2026 07:07:37 +0000

The Available TEC data from seven (07) GPS stations located in the West African zone were used to determine the calculated temporal distribution of Equatorial Plasma Bubble (EPB) occurrence. We also used the ROTI to detect and evaluate irregularities associated with plasma bubbles. The detection and localization of EPBs were achieved by applying software for the detection and localization of sub-ionized plasma bubbles. The study reveals a variability of EPBs which depend on local time of day, season and solar activity. The diurnal variation of EPBs follows the diurnal variation of the ROTI. It shows EPBs associated with a ROTI higher than 3 TECU/mn at night between sunset around 19.00LT and local midnight. They are lower during the few hours after midnight. Seasonal variation shows a significantly higher occurrence during the two equinoxes than during the two solstices. The annual variation of EPBs occurrence is higher during periods of high solar activity (2001, 2014, 2024) and low or virtually absent during periods of solar minima (2008-2009, 2018-2019).

Analysis of Interplanetary Structures Driving Intense Geomagnetic Storms (Minimum Dst ≤ -100 nT) of Types IB and IIB During the Period 1996–2024

Fri, 24 Apr 2026 07:44:48 +0000

The analysis of intense geomagnetic storms (Dst ≤ −100 nT) from 1996 to 2024 has identified two new storm types, IB and IIB, which start their main phase with a Dst index below 0 nT but show distinct evolutionary patterns. Over this period, 13.43% of the studied storms were type IIB and 6.72% were type IB.
Among 23 intense storms examined, 82.6% were driven by interplanetary coronal mass ejections (ICMEs), including 43.47% magnetic clouds (MC), while 17.4% were associated with corotating interaction regions (CIR). Type IB storms were mainly linked to MC, Non-MC, and CIR structures. In contrast, type IIB storms exhibited a wider range of drivers, dominated by MC but also involving sheath regions, CIR, and complex combinations (e.g., Sheath + Non-MC or MC + Sheath).
Analysis of the solar wind structures for these 23 IB/IIB storms shows that frontal shocks (impact angle θXn < 45◦) are strongly associated with magnetic clouds. Of the 23 interplanetary shocks, 87% were frontal (vs. 13% inclined, θXn ≥ 45◦). Frontal shocks were predominantly fast (60% with Vs > 500 km/s) and linked to MC structures (45% of frontal cases). Inclined shocks displayed greater diversity (MC, Non-MC, CIR). Shocks in type IIB storms were more frequently frontal (93%) than in IB (78%). These findings confirm that fast frontal shocks, especially those associated with MC, are the most common drivers of intense type IIB storms.

The Two 3d Realities of the Universe

Thu, 30 Apr 2026 21:54:59 +0000

Models increasingly require Euclidean space in addition to the Euclidean space of the universe (e.g., particles, extra universes, mass) to resolve inconsistencies in certain branches of physics. A well-defined model offering additional Euclidean space is needed to fulfill this requirement. This manuscript is based on the Passage in 4d (2) of the Manuscript (1). The 4d coordinate system in 3d form of the new phase 8 indicates the need for a model that includes more than one universe. By applying the Passage in 4d (2) to the fundamental 3d space, we obtain in the new phase 8 a universe space that is structured by two 3d realities. Because this model of a universe with two 3d realities offers additional Euclidean space and is defined geometrically by an experiment, it is preferable to any model of a structure with more than one universe. Thus, it can serve as a framework for any theory that requires additional Euclidean space.

Modified Gravitational Field of a Charged Non-Rotating Mass

Fri, 24 Apr 2026 09:11:13 +0000

We present a static, spherically symmetric spacetime solution sourced by a unified field tensor incorporating both electromagnetic and gravitational field self-energies. By constructing an effective total energy–momentum tensor as the sum of electromagnetic and gravitational field contributions, we derive modified field equations in which spacetime curvature is directly sourced by field energies. The resulting metric generalizes the Reissner–Nordström geometry through the appearance of a mixed gravitational–electromagnetic coupling term proportional to the product of the Schwarzschild radius and the classical charge radius. The solution reproduces the Schwarzschild limits in the appropriate regimes, while predicting a modified horizon structure and altered extremality conditions in the strong-field domain. These results suggest that gravitational self-energy may play a non-negligible role in charged compact objects and provide a tractable framework for exploring nonlinear field interactions beyond standard Einstein–Maxwell theory.

Unifying Penrose Process, Blandford–Znajek Mechanism, and Superradiance Using Negative Phase Velocity

Sun, 26 Apr 2026 10:58:18 +0000

The extraction of rotational energy from a Kerr black hole admits several celebrated descriptions, including the Penrose process (Penrose (1969)), wave superradiance (Zel’dovich (1971), Misner (1972), Teukolsky, Press (1974); see also Thorne, Price, Wheeler (1986)), and the Blandford-Znajek mechanism (Blandford, Znajek (1977)). Traditionally treated as distinct, these processes are shown here to be unified through a single criterion: the existence of negative Killing energy flux across the horizon, locally manifested as negative phase velocity (NPV) in the ergosphere (Setiawan, Mackay, Lakhtakia (2005)). We demonstrate that (i) the Penrose process corresponds to particle trajectories with Eχ< 0, (ii) superradiance corresponds to wave modes with ω < mΩH, and (iii) the Blandford–Znajek mechanism corresponds to electromagnetic field lines with ΩF < ΩH. In all cases, the horizon absorbs negative energy while positive energy escapes to infinity. By expressing these mechanisms through the NPV condition S . k < 0, we present a unified theoretical framework for black hole energy extraction.

Unified Dark Energy and Dark Matter: Space, the Energy Continuum With Self-compression

Wed, 29 Apr 2026 22:26:38 +0000

A unified framework for dark energy and dark matter is proposed in which space is modeled as a self-compressive energy continuum undergoing sub-Planck-scale oscillations. Localized variations in the energy–pressure gradients of the continuum are assumed to produce energy peaks that collapse into multiple discrete quanta, which then coalesce to form fundamental particles surrounded by a sub-quantum field. This field is characterized by two conserved components: a divergent energy flux and a solenoidal (curl) energy flux. The divergent flux is interpreted as dark energy responsible for cosmic acceleration, while the curl flux is interpreted as dark matter responsible for gravitational clustering. Coupled governing equations are derived using flux conservation principles and are incorporated into the Friedmann cosmological framework. Numerical estimations indicate that, for characteristic wavelengths on the order of m, a vacuum energy density of approximately kg m^-3 is obtained, consistent with observational findings. For galactic-scale parameters, the curl component yields a dark matter density of approximately kg m^-3, also in agreement with measured values. Rotational velocity curves calculated for NGC 3198 exhibit trends closely aligned with observational data. These results suggest that dark energy and dark matter may emerge as distinct dynamical manifestations of a single underlying self-compressive energy continuum, thereby providing a unified physical interpretation of the dark sector.

An Operational Causal-Symmetry Framework for Quantum Nonlocality and Information

Thu, 30 Apr 2026 01:12:49 +0000

This paper studies a minimal time-symmetric operational framework in which information from initial preparation and post-selection is used to define an operational description of quantum evolution. Quantum randomness is interpreted as epistemic incompleteness rather than ontological indeterminacy. The central dynamical object is the informational coupling map Λκ(ρ) = (1 − κ)ρ + κσZ, which mixes the actual state ρ with a fixed reference state σZ. The channel itself is mathematically standard; the contribution of the manuscript is the operational interpretation of the dimensionless coupling parameter κ as a measure of boundary alignment, its entropy-based estimation under explicitly stated assumptions, and its embedding in a delayed-choice quantum random number generator (QRNG) protocol. A Gorini–Kossakowski–Sudarshan–Lindblad (GKSL) representation of the corresponding continuous-time dynamics is given using a separate relaxation rate γ, complete positivity is explicit, and no-signaling is preserved under the proposed local action. In the limit γ → 0, standard unitary quantum mechanics is recovered, whereas nonzero γ produces small deviations that can be interpreted as effective informational bias associated with post-selection. In the present framework, σZ is not treated as a universal microscopic final state, but as a context-dependent operational reference state determined by the post-selection structure used in the model.

Bohr’s Quantum Condition Derived From Classical Mechanics and Its Limits of Application

Thu, 30 Apr 2026 14:00:59 +0000

Bohr assumed a quantum condition when deriving the energy levels of a hydrogen atom. However, this quantum condition was not a logically derived formula. The support of the de Broglie condition was necessary to give physical meaning to Bohr’s quantum condition. However, this paper shows that Bohr’s quantum condition can also be derived from formulas of classical mechanics. Even if an attempt is made to rewrite Bohr’s quantum condition as a relativistic quantum condition, it is not possible to derive the relativistic energy levels of a hydrogen atom. However, if the true quantum condition built into Bohr’s quantum condition is used, then the relativistic energy levels can also be derived, in addition to the nonrelativistic energy levels of a hydrogen atom. In this way we can conclude that the quantum condition v_n/c = a/n advocated by this paper is superior as a quantum condition to that of Bohr.

By Using Calculated Mass Spectrum to Probe Quantum Energy Levels in Particle Hierarchies

Sun, 17 May 2026 12:33:40 +0000

We present a simple yet powerful framework for predicting particle masses within quantized energy scales. By defining discrete energy unit and using the empirical Su-Lee’s Exponential-Mass Relation in units of GeV, we have shown that the Higgs boson () and the top quark () naturally emerge as consecutive quantized states. This framework allows extrapolation to hypothetical particles at intermediate scales, providing direct mass estimates for experimental searches. Because it requires minimal computational resources while maintaining robust predictive power, it offers a practical tool for guiding accelerator-based studies. Our results indicate that key Standard Model masses may arise from a discrete energy structure, suggesting a deeper organizing principle behind the mass hierarchy.