A Study of Chinese and Japanese College Students ’ L 2 Learning Styles

Learning style, much related to motivation and cognitive strategies, has been one of the most frequently discussed topics in the field of foreign/second language (L2) education. There is a considerable body of research on learning styles stemming from the domain of psychology to the conceptual field. As individuals learn in different ways from time to time, from culture to culture, and from context to context, findings of such research can only explain a comparatively small group of people’s temporary perceptions of their learning preferences to a selected subject surveyed. Sternberg (2001, p. 250) notes that “the literature has failed to provide any common conceptual framework and language,” while, according to Reid (1998), the concept is still not well understood. An enduring question for language researchers is the effect of individual differences on the efficacy of language learning (Nel, 2008). Much more research has to be done to address the issue of theoretical coherence as well as aiming for well-rounded empirical findings, tested through replication. Therefore, with an intention to contribute more data to cross-country research, this study investigated the differences and similarities of Chinese and Japanese college students’ perceptions of their current English learning styles through a classroom-based survey. Implications for the teaching and learning are discussed in the final section.

As early as fifty years ago, Lewenfeld (1945) researched visual versus haptic preferences, but the concept of learning style has not been well explored at present.There is confusion that comes from a wide variation in the scale and scope of learning, school achievement, and other behavior predicted by the various learning style terms (Nel, 2008).Learning style can be defined as "learners' consistent ways of responding to and using stimuli in the context of learning" (Claxton and Ralston, 1978, p. 7).Kinsella (1995, p. 171) describes it as "learners' natural, habitual, and preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills which persist regardless of teaching methods or content area."Curry (1983) employs a metaphorical onion with its multiple layers to decide an individual's preferences (i.e., instructional and environmental preferences, information processing preferences of the learner, and the individual's personality dimension).Reid (1987) identified four basic perceptual style preferences: visual (for instance reading, charts), auditory (for instance lectures, tapes), kinesthetic (like physical activity), and tactile (for instance building models or doing laboratory experiments).To these he added the dimensions of group versus individual learning preferences to develop the well-known Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire.Oxford's (1993) Style Analysis Survey and the Ehrman and Leaver Learning Styles Questionnaire (2003) are also popular instruments to examine students' learning styles.
As all students learn in different ways, what works well for one learner may not be useful or favorable for another.Kolb (1984) stated that some students show particular strengths that form the basis of their preferred learning style.Reid (1987) suggested that although stylistic preferences are relatively stable, students need to be adaptable, since research showed that "the ability of students to employ multiple learning styles results in greater classroom success" (p.101).His study indicated that Korean students were the most visual while Arabic and Chinese language learners expressed a strong preference for auditory learning.Hyland (1993) found that Japanese students favored auditory and tactile styles.
Although style preferences are often presented in terms of dichotomies (such as global versus analytical), many learners definitely do not exclusively display one style or its bipolar opposites, but operate somewhere on an intervening continuum (Nel, 2008).If students have a largely verbal style, this does not necessarily mean that they will not also display elements of visual style.The question of how the style literature should be integrated and organized is still being posed by researchers and teachers alike (Desmedt and Valcke, 2004).

Chinese and Japanese students' attitudes toward L2 learning
As a part of Chinese culture, the ideology of teachers as authority has a strong impact on Chinese students' learning behavior.A certain degree of passivism permeates in the classroom.Students prefer clear, step-by-step guidance for tasks and assignments, and they depend on their teacher to make decisions, set goals, make plans, monitor their learning, and evaluate their progress in learning.However, being passive in class or even outside the classroom does not necessarily mean that they are not responsible for their own learning.Once intimidation to express themselves disappears, students can be more active than Western peers in academic learning, as demonstrated by their outstanding academic performance.Hsu and Xu (2007) point out that underneath the collective, uniform disciplined behavior in class, Chinese students can be very active and even insubordinate, given certain circumstances.They are active and noisy during class activities, particularly when they are enjoying the activities.They may even lose control during group work, when the teacher is not "in charge" or not involved in the activity.Hsu and Xu's study reveals that Chinese students become active when they notice the absence of the "threat" or the reduction of the power distance, e.g., the friendliness (or vulnerability) and the structure of the class activities.
Other studies on Chinese students' learning behaviors have also provided an account that they can be either active or passive, depending on given tasks and situations.For example, Wang (2001) examined the Chinese students' oral contribution in a UK university and stated that they were passive and silent in the classroom but very talkative during the break.Hsu (2005) compared his Chinese students both in Taiwan and in UK and found the same phenomenon.Thus, he labeled Chinese students as two-faced and claimed that such a behavior of the Chinese students seems to be universal, either in Taiwan or in foreign countries.Brown (2004) conducted a survey on Japanese university students' motivation for learning English, with a sample of 283 first year students who enrolled in both compulsory and elective English classes.The survey was to find out what these students were actually doing to learn English and whether students who voluntarily studied English differed motivationally from those who were forced to study English.The results indicated that student motivations tended to be utilitarian and that while students possessed high levels of motivation, they typically did not invest sufficient effort in actual learning behaviors.In addition, students did not differ in any major way depending on whether they were studying electively or non-electively.Sakai (2010) examined 3587 college students from various universities using a proficiency test and a set of questionnaires.The results showed that one of the major factors which differentiated the upper from the middle and lower percentile groups was the use of cognitive strategies: the lower English proficiency the learners have, the less often they use cognitive strategies.It is assumed that this phenomenon is caused by learners' stages of development of meta-cognition.Accordingly, in order to improve English proficiency of the middle and lower percentile groups, it is crucial for East Asian students to nurture their meta-cognition when they are aware of their learning styles and are motivated to learn the target language.
As they undertake similar overwhelming pressure from exams and quizzes, both Taiwanese and Japanese students are comparatively more obedient to the teacher's academic arrangement to a certain degree: do as what the teacher plans and asks in order to get high scores.What they lack most may be their metacognitive competence, which includes the ability to make informed decisions, plan, and monitor their learning.What they need most is control of their learning through learner training: to transform passiveness to activeness and from less self-directedness to autonomy in their attitude and behavior.Thus, in addition to sustained internal motivation (out of their willingness), metacognitive knowledge on their learning styles and language learning process is crucial and a must for the students to become successful language learners.

The study
This is a cross-country research concerning EFL learners' learning styles in Taiwan and Japan.Our research question is: Are there any differences and similarities between the two learner groups at the same proficiency level?The reason we selected these two countries is that we share several things in common concerning English learning: 1) English is learned as a foreign language (EFL); 2) both have Chinese characters as mother tongue; 3) similar educational systems: there are six years for elementary school, three years for junior high school, and three years for senior high school; and 4) both countries, situated in East Asia, are island countries with EFL learners' less frequent encounter with English speaking people.

Participants
There were 168 Taiwanese students categorized as intermediate or low-intermediate levels of English proficiency and 140 Japanese students also categorized as similar levels.All were college students with their ages ranging from 18 to 22.

Data collection and analysis
A questionnaire, which consisted of 30 questions (Appendix 1), was administered by the students' English teachers (the authors) in April 2009.The means and SDs of participants' responses were shown in Appendix 2. Before they answered the questionnaire, students also took a simplified English proficiency test (Appendix 3) from the pre-STEP 2 test of http://stepeiken.org/,given in 2006.After statistic analyses, the authors did not find a difference of proficiency levels between these two groups (p=.04125 n.s.).In this study, we put the focus on the learning style and compare the differences and similarities of the two groups from the survey.

Preference of teaching methodologies (Questions 1-5)
The results (see Figure 1) showed there were no significant differences between the two countries in preference of teaching methodologies (5 questions: Q1-Q5).More than 80% of the respondents from both countries preferred learning English with pictures, films, and videos.The reason may be that they favor teaching methodologies that involve both visual and auditory senses in addition to interesting stories."Games" was the second preference they enjoyed because the teacher usually would not be "in charge" or not excessively involved in such activities."Conversations" was the least favorable to Japanese and Taiwanese students.The reason could be this kind of activity requires more interaction and effort from students.
Insert Figure 1  In terms of the way to use notebooks and textbooks (2 questions: Q6-Q7), the results (see Figure 2) showed that 71.58% of Taiwanese students would like to have their own textbooks while 67.32% of Japanese students wanted to write in their notebooks.The reason may be that Taiwanese students are used to having their own textbooks and completely rely on what the book says.They may feel very insecure or uncomfortable without a textbook in hand.

Teachers attitudes (Questions 8-10)
In terms of teachers' attitudes (3 questions: Q8-Q10), the results (see Figure 3) showed there were no significant differences between two countries.More than 77% of all the respondents would like their teachers to explain everything to them.The reason may be that both countries are Confucian-heritage countries where teachers are regarded highly as the authority, so students rarely challenge them when they have different opinions.Results also showed that respondents from both countries did not favor their teachers to give them problems to solve.This may be because most students are teacher-dependent and expect from teachers one standard answer to each problem.Regarding the error correction (2 questions: Q11-Q12), the results (see Figure 4) showed that 76.78% of Taiwanese students expected their teachers to point out their errors while 76.08% of Japanese students expected their teachers to allow them to find their own errors.From the data, Japanese students seemed to be hesitant in being pointed out their errors by their teachers especially in a classroom setting whereas Taiwanese students preferred that their teachers reveal the errors.The results (see Figure 5) revealed students' preferences of learning in class (5 questions: Q13-Q17).Almost 44 % of all the respondents did not like to go out of their classrooms and learn English.Taiwanese students liked to learn English with the class, not individually.On the other hand, Japanese students preferred individual study.They did not like pair work or group work.From the data, Taiwanese students seemed to be group oriented while Japanese students preferred to work independently.When we examined the preferences of learning items (6 questions: Q18-Q23), we found there was a significant difference between the two counties.Taiwanese students liked learning English by doing hands on activity (kinesthetic).Japanese students liked learning English by hearing (auditory), which confirmed Hyland's (1993) findings.Data also showed that Taiwanese students liked learning English by hearing (auditory), which confirmed Reid's (1987) findings.About a half of respondents did not like grammar.

Insert
Insert Figure 6  Regarding studying at home (4 questions: Q24-Q27), the results (see Figure 7) showed that there was a significant difference between the two learner groups.Taiwanese students studied and watched English TV programs at home more often than Japanese students.Half of the respondents did not like studying at home reading English newspapers.

English learning and communication (Questions 28-30)
Regarding English learning and communication (3 questions: Q28-Q30), the results showed that the majority of the respondents liked learning English by communicating with native English speakers (Q29 and Q30) (see Figure 8), but 41.85% of the respondents did not like talking to friends in English.Taiwanese students preferred watching/listening to native speakers or communicating with foreigners more than Japanese students did.

Discussion
Interpretations of the similarities between two groups of students are as follows: 1) Both groups preferred learning English using pictures, films, and videos: Using visual aids is effective for learners to understand the meaning of words, sentences, and texts without translation into learners' L1.This can be explained by cognitive learning.Nakamura & Ishihara (2008) prove that the use of multi-sensory approach with more than two modalities such as visual and auditory aids facilitates learners' comprehension of target language.We conjecture that this finding can be applied for L2 learners disregarding the differences of L1.
2) Both groups expected their teachers to explain everything to them: This may be caused by learners' intolerance of ambiguity and uncertainty in learning foreign language (Brown, 1987 p.89).However, learners may have to overcome such psychological barriers because successful language learning necessitates of such ambiguities as Brown (1987) maintains.
3) Both groups did not like to go out with the class and study English: The questionnaire we adopted for this study was originally given to those who came to an English speaking country, Australia, where they studied English (Nunan, 1989).In such a situation this teaching and learning approach can be very effective, but it does not work for those who learn English in their own countries where an English speaking population is much less.
4) Both groups did not like to study grammar: It depends on how they have learned English grammar.In both countries, grammar teaching method is based on deductive reasoning."Classroom learning tends to rely more than it should on deductive reasoning.Traditional methods, especially Grammar-Translation, have overemphasized the use of deductive reason in language teaching."(Brown, 1987 p.83).Such a teaching method may still be prevalent and in vogue in classrooms in the two countries.
5) Both groups did not like reading English newspapers at home: Reading newspapers in their target language is overwhelming for average learners.
Interpretations of the differences between two groups of students are as follows: Taiwanese students 1) Taiwanese students preferred more "ownership" of their learning materials, so they preferred to have their own textbooks.
2) Unlike Japanese students who preferred teachers to let them find their errors, Taiwanese students seemed to be more passive and dependent on their teachers.They expected teachers to point out their errors.
3) Unlike Japanese students who favored working alone in class, Taiwanese students preferred group or whole-class activities to the pair work or individual task in the classroom.They may like to have a learning context with much less anxiety and less threat from the teacher.According to the Slimani study (1989) on the classroom interaction using group work, it was found that even those students who did not rank highly their classmates' contribution as a productive source of linguistic input profited from it unknowingly.The Slimani finding, which is supported by our experiential knowledge, is important as there are always some learners in every class who love to talk, there are also some who keep quiet because they may find speaking in their still-developing L2 very demanding (Kumaravadivelu, 2003).High anxiety resulting from a stressful situation may, as Krashen (1985) has claimed, slow the ability to process input.It is possible that "the learners who maintain silence may experience less anxiety and so be better able to 'let in' the input their fellow students have secured for them" (Ellis, 1999, p. 246).
Japanese group 1) Japanese students may like to write in their notebooks.Traditional teaching method may still be used in classrooms in Japan: teachers spend more time explaining concepts and tell students to copy all notes written on the blackboard in their notebook.
2) Japanese students expected teachers to let them find their errors on their own.From the students' viewpoint, they may feel humiliated when teachers point out their errors, especially in classroom, so they may find it safer to find their own errors instead.
3) They preferred individual studies, or small group learning.According to the latest theory concerning second language acquisition, it is generally said that interactive learning style such as pair and group work is effective in a language class, but teachers find that sometimes this, especially pair work, does not work well because of learners' peculiar learning style preferences.4) They spend less time studying English at home than Taiwanese group.According to Nakamura's observation, enthusiasm for English learning like Chinese people cannot generally be seen in Japan.There are many university students in Japan who do not see the significance of learning English.For further investigation, we may have to construct a questionnaire that deals with their motivation for English learning, and analyze the data to make this point clear.

Implications for EFL teaching and learning in East Asian contexts
Studies on Western students' learning preferences reveal that they like a self-directed learning environment better; they want knowledge and skills that increase productivity; and they are more comfortable with graphics and visual images than with print media.In terms of learning characteristics, they believe in self-reliance and independent thinking; they accept diversity; and they are not intimidated by authority (Kumaravadivelu, 2003).
East Asian students are quite different from such descriptions.Therefore, there must be a discrepancy between their learning styles and what EFL teachers think is a good teaching method.EFL teachers then should be aware and responsible to minimize the mismatches in their classes.As learners' needs analysis and learning preferences contribute to learner-centered education, a reliable and valid learning style instrument (for instance, Oxford, 1999;Reid, 1987) can be a useful tool in the beginning of an L2 course for the teacher to modify activities, depending on the proficiency level of their students and their specific context of learning and teaching.There are several areas, as Nel (2008) suggests, teachers can apply to help their students learn well and achieve success. (

1) Flexible and varied instructional planning and management
The key for teachers in planning lessons is to be attentive to the various ways students learn best.In order to recognize students' learning styles, teachers might use language style instruments to measure and identify the learners' styles.Teachers can use the learners' style profiles suggested by the instruments as the basis for preparing their instruction.Teachers should include a variety of language learning activities (such as individual, pair work, or group work), materials (such as videos, CDs, the Internet, magazines, etc.) and tasks (such as looking for a roommate, or planning a graduation party or trip), since different students will have different interests and will respond more or less favorably to different stimuli.
(2) Effective and sensitive teaching style Teachers instruct differently, so they should be aware of their teaching style preferences.They need to vary their teaching styles to accommodate the multiple learning styles of their students.By understanding students' learning styles, and by being flexible regarding their own teaching styles, teachers can heighten their awareness and be more sensitive in their listening, observation, preparation, presentation, and interaction with the students.They can be more effective if they can provide more variety and choice to accommodate the stylistic differences of their students.
(3) Supportive and stimulating learning environment Every student has the right and responsibility to be successful.In order to facilitate students to achieve their goals, teachers need to ask themselves what changes they can make to improve the chances of success for students.Teachers need to provide their students with supportive and stimulating learning environments, so they can feel comfortable and respected as unique learners. (

) Diverse assessment components and options
To accommodate students' various learning styles, it is crucial that assessment components and options are constructed into the language course.The assessment tool can take many forms, including regular assignments, individual or group projects, on-line or in-class quizzes, student oral presentations, research essays, and term papers.The formats of the tools (such as filling in the blanks, short and essay questions, and multiple-choice questions) should be appropriate for students' language proficiency levels.In addition, the teacher should provide a variety of appropriate visual aids, such as tables, charts, diagrams, or verbal description, to suit a variety of styles.

Conclusion
A good teacher should maximize the learning opportunities for his or her students, and a good student must learn how to be successful using different learning strategies (Kumaravadivelu, 2003).Since learning styles seem to be characteristics of learning, teachers may not be able to have as much influence over this learner variable as over motivation.However, teachers should adjust classroom tasks to maximize the potential of individual learners with particular learning style(s).It is possible that learners, over time, can be encouraged to engage in 'style stretching' so as to integrate approaches to learning they were resisting in the past (Cohen and Dörnyei, 2002 p. 176).If teachers can respond appropriately to individual learning needs, and successfully design and deliver language instruction relevant to a multiplicity of learning style, they may assume that every student can learn.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Preference of Teaching Methodologies

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. The Way to Use Notebooks and Textbooks