The Dàodéjīng: A 2022 Translation

This paper is divided into two sections. Section one is a translation of the Dàodéjīng in English. Section two is an in-depth analysis and explanation of the translation of the Dàodéjīng in section one. This paper includes both Chinese versions of the standard Wáng Bì and a reconstructed Mǎwángduī version of the Dàodéjīng with the addition of appropriate commas and full stops. The two key aspects in regard to this paper’s commentary that may be somewhat different to previous works, is that this paper has defined the Dào as that action (or movement) within emptiness that cannot be seen with the naked eye but has brought all life into existence and also maintains it. Therefore, the translation of Lǎozǐ’s cornerstone philosophy could be a play on words, where wúwéi 無為 not only takes wú 無 to mean “no” or “non” but also takes wú to mean “emptiness.” The translation of wúwéi would therefore, also be, “emptiness [in] action,” which refers to the actions that are happening within emptiness which cannot be seen by the naked eye. The second aspect is in relation to dé 德. The English and Confucian meaning of virtue is having high moral standards. Lǎozǐ’s dé appears to have had little to do with morals in the modern sense of the word. From the 5 “virtues” mentioned by Lǎozǐ, we can clearly see that Lǎozǐ’s virtue was based on following the principles of Dào. This paper therefore proposes that the dé can be translated as “quiescence.”


Aims and Objectives
The goal of this paper is two-fold, the first is to present a translation of the Dàodéjīng as close to the original text as possible. This has been attempted before of which it appears that three translations stand out in particular: Chan (1963), Lin (1994) and Chen (1998). The second purpose of this paper is to publish it as an open source text, so that it is freely available and easily accessible to anyone, regardless of whether they read Chinese or not and can also be used as a generic outline for future research.
In terms of this paper's commentaries, it has one specific aim, which is to comment on the ideas and concepts within the Dàodéjīng based only on lines from the Dàodéjīng it-self. Many of the Dàodéjīng commentaries out there are generally based on personal opinion and not on what Lǎozǐ wrote. There are occasional standout papers by people who have analysed Lǎozǐ by using Lǎozǐ. Two such standouts are Henricks (2000) and Murphy (2006).

Significance
This translation has been created to help shed new light and different angles on what is one of the world's most famous philosophical texts. It seems as though in the 1990s, just about anyone and everyone was translating the Dàodéjīng. Fast forward another twenty-five years or so, and it is quite the opposite, where sinology journals have little interest in a new Dàodéjīng translation. The issue is that finding a correct Dàodéjīng translation is still quite rare, with some of the worst translations coming from the Western academic sinology community. Even to this day there are a number of so-called leading Western scholars lecturing on all aspects of sinology who cannot speak Mandarin fluently and have never lived in China for a prolonged period of time. To make matters worse, a few of these scholars are also editors and reviewers for academic journals related to Chinese studies.
Dàodéjīng (or more accurately Dé dàojīng), by combining both versions A and B, to help fill any gaps that each may have. Whether it be version A or B, if the character matches the Wá ng Bì version's character, this paper will take that as the one to use. This paper also mentions obvious character variations between the two Mǎwángduī versions. In places where the Guōdiàn (A, B and C) version is obviously different from the other two texts, it is mentioned in the footnotes.
In terms of the sources used for the Chinese versions of the Wáng Bì, Mǎwángduī and Guōdiàn, this paper has used many different texts and cross-referenced them against each other. The reason for this is that under great scrutiny, all copies have many different variations in their characters and gaps. This paper focuses a little extra on the use of characters (and gaps) in the Wá ng Bì Dàodéjīng from the Phoenix Publishing House (Wang, 2017) and the online work of Hilmar Klaus' (2005) Mǎwángduī and Guōdiàn. In regard to the Wáng Bì version presented in this paper, it is probably quite close to the original. The Mǎwángduī and Guōdiàn versions within this paper though can be seen as a work in progress that future scholars can adjust, change and correct where necessary.
As the goal of this paper is to do a direct translation from Chinese into English, it may be important to mention the difficulties in trying to achieve this goal. The first is in dealing with the simplicity (in terms of grammar) of the ancient Chinese language compared to modern English or Chinese. You will notice many added grammar words in this translation, which have been done with square brackets, otherwise the constructed sentence would not make sense to English readers. Due to the lack of vocabulary in ancient Chinese when compared to modern English, sometimes the English sentences may seem overly basic in word choice. This is done purposely to keep it, as Lǎozǐ wrote it. Another issue is that because the grammar (in terms of word order and sentence structure) of Chinese and in-particular that of ancient Chinese is different to English, some sentences if translated directly would simply not make any sense at all. Therefore, this paper has tried to keep some form of harmony in the writing by sometimes omitting Chinese grammar words or adding in English grammar words.

A Note on This Papers Commentary and Key Translations
In terms of the commentary, the two key aspects that may be somewhat different to previous works is that this paper defines the Dà o as that action (or movement) within emptiness that cannot be seen with the naked eye but has brought all life into existence and also maintains it. Therefore, the translation of Lǎozǐ's cornerstone philosophy could be a play on words, where wúwé i 無為 not only takes wú 無 to mean "no" or "non" but also takes wú to mean "emptiness." The translation of wúwéi could therefore also be "emptiness [in] action," which refers to the actions that are happening within emptiness which cannot be seen by the naked eye. It is these unseeable actions that can do anything (無不為) for they created everything we see in the world today. To return to the Dà o as a person is to return to this original state of being, which is one of stillness, quiet and tranquillity. As the Dàodéjīng may have been created as a text primarily for rulers, it does appear that Lǎozǐ's cornerstone philosophy for ruling was based on the idea of letting things take their natural course and to not interfere too much.
The English and Confucian meaning of virtue is having high moral standards. Lǎozǐ recommends following nature's example and using its principles as the way to live. Just as nature can seem very harsh and certainly lacking in morals in the human sense of the word, Lǎozǐ said, treat the people like (sacrificial) straw dogs. Lǎozǐ's dé 德 had little to do with morals in the modern sense of the word. From the 5 "virtues (see pg. 160)," mentioned by Lǎozǐ, we can clearly see that Lǎozǐ's virtue was based on following the principles of Dào. If multiple words can be used, the translation for dé may be; someone who adheres and lives by the principles of the Dà o, or the principles of naturalness. Simply put, someone who has the qualities of the Dà o has dé . This makes translating dé extremely difficult as one needs to find a word that has the "qualities" of Dào in its meaning or at the very least, the qualities of naturalness. This paper therefore proposes that dé can be translated as "quiescence." A common translation for the Dàodéjīng is, The Classic of the Way and Virtue. In this case, the ach.ccsenet.org Asian Culture and History Vol. 14, No. 2; translation would be, The Classic of the Way and Quiescence.
Throughout this paper there is one word that has not been translated; "Dào." This word has specifically been written with its tone throughout the paper, except for in the English translation section. The reason for this is with its tone attached, it is clearly conveyed as a non-English word. The tonal mark is taken away in the English translation to recognise it, as an English word. This paper recommends that while "the way" is an acceptable translation for the Dà o, no English word is equivalent to the word Dà o and therefore just as English has always incorporated new foreign words into its vocabulary, so should the Dào become incorporated as "Dao." The word "Tao" is specifically not used as it promotes an incorrect "T" sound as opposed to the correct "D" sound used in the Northern Chinese Mandarin dialect.

A Note on the Dàodéjīng and Its Background
Discussing the Dàodéjīng's background in-depth is beyond the scope and goal of this paper. The paragraphs below only aim to give a very brief introduction in regard to the author's observations after translating the text.
In terms of taking the Dàodéjīng as a historical text as opposed to revering it in a way that it was written by a god-like figure, it is possible to notice some peculiarities. In ancient China, it was a common practise for philosophers to try to promote their, "how to govern a state" philosophy or literature to the kings of states. 1 The Dàodéjīng appears to be one such text. This is extremely apparent in the second half of the Wá ng Bì Dàodéjīng version and first half of the Mǎwángduī versions.
Another point to make is that the Guōdiàn and Mǎwángduī versions of the Dàodéjīng, clearly have many errors, while the Wá ng Bì version has many corrections. Errors based on word sounds over character meaning are one such example. Combine this sound and character issue with the fact that the Dàodéjīng also has much repetitiveness within the chapters and there are hints that it may not have been written by a single person but instead by numerous authors over a long period of time and may also have come from oral transmission. For now, there is no substantial evidence to suggest that Lǎozǐ existed (Mair, 1990, pp.119-130). For the ease of writing within in this paper, "Lǎozǐ" has been used in singular form, instead of plural, which is probably the more appropriate form. The words Lǎozǐ (the original name of the text) and Dàodéjīng are used within this paper as interchangeably titles, as the text has gone by both names. After the discovery of the Mǎwángduī scripts, the text could also now be called the Dédàojīng due to the flip in the order of chapters.
surnames all pay attention to their ears and eyes, and because of this, they are all like the sage's children.

Chapter 50
To be born is to enter death. One third of people follow life, one third of people follow death and also one third of people with life, are moving to a place of death. Now, why is this? Because to seek the life of life is too excessive. I have heard, to be good at conserving one's life is to travel by land and not chance upon female rhinoceros' or tigers and to enter the army and not wear armour.
For these people, female rhinoceros' do not have a place to stick their horns, tigers do not have a place to use their claws and soldiers do not have a place to stab their swords. Now, why is this? Because they have no place of death.

Chapter 51
The Dao produces, quiescence raises, things have form and circumstances complete. So, none of the ten thousand things do not respect the Dao and value quiescence.
The respect of Dao and the value of quiescence. Now, none of these things are ever commanded to do and are instead constantly natural.
Produce, yet not to have, to act, yet not depend on, to grow, yet not to slaughter. This is called profound quiescence.

Chapter 52
Everything that is underneath the sky has a beginning and this beginning is the mother of everything that is underneath the sky. Having known the mother is to know the child, having known the child is to again abide by its mother, to abide by the mother till the end and the body has no danger.
Block the holes and close the doors, so in the end the body is not exhausted. Opening the holes, assisting with affairs and in the end the body cannot be rescued. Seeing the small is called bright, abiding by the soft is called strong. Use the light and again return to the bright, do not bequeath your body to calamities, this is called practising the constant.

Chapter 53
If I were to make use of a little bit of knowledge that I have, it would be to walk with the great Dao and only fear going astray. The Great Dao is very smooth, yet people are very fond of other paths.
The royal court is completely wiped out, the fields are completely over grown with weeds, the granaries are completely empty, wearing embroidered colours, carrying sharp swords, sated with food and drink, to have a surplus of wealth and possessions, this is called the boasting of a thief. This is not the Dao!

Chapter 54
A good establishment cannot be uprooted, a good embrace cannot slip away, sons and grandsons give sacrificial offering without stopping. Cultivating the body and quiescence is therefore real, cultivate at home and quiescence therefore has surplus, cultivate in the village and quiescence therefore has growth, cultivate in the state and quiescence is therefore plentiful, cultivate in everything underneath the sky and quiescence is therefore everywhere.
Therefore, the body observes the body, the home observes the home, the village observes the village, the state observes the state and everything that is underneath the sky, observes everything that is underneath the sky. How do I know that everything underneath the sky is so? It is because of this.

Chapter 55
Hold onto the fullness of quiescence as it is comparable to a newborn baby. Wasps, scorpions and snakes will not sting or bite them, fierce animals will not seize them and birds of prey will not strike them. Their bones are weak, their tendons are soft but their grasp is firm.
Not knowing the joining of male and female but still having an intact penis that works, his sexual essence is at its peak. Crying the whole day, yet he does not get a hoarse voice, the peak of harmony. there is an early end.

Chapter 56
Those that know do not speak, those that speak do not know. Block the holes, close the doors, blunt the sharp, untie the tangled, harmonise the bright, be the same as dust, this is called to be the same as the profound.
Therefore, with this person, one cannot have either closeness, one cannot have either distance, one cannot have either benefit, one cannot have either harm, one cannot have either value and one cannot have either humiliation. Therefore, in everything that is underneath the sky this person is valued.

Chapter 57
Be upright in managing the state, use the army as something strange to do and with non-interference take everything that is underneath the sky.
How do I know this is so? It is because of this: when everything that is underneath the sky has lots of taboos, the poorer the people, when the people have lots of sharp implements, the state and royal house are increasingly in darkness, when the people are very crafty, strange things increasingly arise, when the command of laws are increasingly clever, the more bandits and thieves there will be.
Therefore, the sage says: "I have non-action, so the people themselves transform, I am very still, so the people themselves are upright, I do not have any business, so the people themselves are natural, I have no desire, so the people are themselves simple."

Chapter 58
When the government is depressed, its people are pure and honest, when the government is inquiring about everything, its people are lacking.
Disaster! What happiness relies on. Happiness! What disasters conceal. Who knows the limit. When there is no uprightness, uprightness once again is strange and the good once again are evil. The confusion of the people, these days are undoubtedly long. So, the sage is square but not cutting, angular but does not cut, straight but not unrestrained, bright but not dazzling.

Chapter 59
In governing the people and dealing with the sky, there is nothing like being thrifty. Now, only thrifty is called early preparation, early preparation is called heavily accumulated quiescence. To have heavily accumulated quiescence and there is nothing a person cannot overcome. Having nothing that cannot be overcome and there is no known limit to this person.
Having no known limit and this person can have the state. Having the mother of the state and one can long endure. So, this is called deep roots and a firm base, which is the Dao's way to live long and to see the world a long time.

Chapter 60
Governing a large state is like cooking a small fish, use the Dao to administrate everything that is underneath the sky, then ghosts do not have a spirit. It is not that these ghosts do not really have no spirit, it is that their spirit cannot harm people.
It is not that these spirits do not harm people, it is that the sage also does not harm people. Now because these two do not mutually harm the people, therefore, quiescence converges and makes a return.

Chapter 61
A large state is downstream where all the rivers under the sky converge and is the female of everything that is underneath the sky. A female constantly can with stillness defeat the male, this is because stillness is below.
Therefore, a large state can lie below a small state, thereby taking the small state, a small state can lie below a big state, thereby taking the big state. Therefore, either by low lying a state can take over or by low lying a state then takes. A large state merely desires to unite and raise the people, a small state merely desires to enter into the affairs of people. Now, because of parental affection, so in war there is victory, so in military defence there is resoluteness. When the sky wants to save, it guards with parental affection.

Chapter 68
A good solider does not show his martial skill, good fighting is done with no anger, being good at defeating an enemy is with no participation and being good at using people is to be below them. This is called the quiescence of non-contention, it is also called using the strength of people and it is also called the utmost of joining the sky of old.

Chapter 69
In using soldiers there are the following sayings: "I dare not be the host, only the guest; I dare not advance an inch, only retreat a foot." This is called moving without moving, to roll up one's sleeves without showing one's arms, to attack without an enemy and to hold without a weapon.
There is no greater calamity than to make light of your enemy, making light of your enemy and from many losses my treasure is lost. There is no greater calamity then having no enemy, to have no enemy and I approach losing my preservation. Therefore, fighting armies that are mutually together in combat, it is the grieving one which will defeat the other!

Chapter 70
My words are very easy to know and very easy to walk. But no one underneath the sky is able to know them and no one can walk them. Words have their ancestor, affairs have their monarch. Now, only because they do not know, so they do not know me. Those who know me are few, thus I am valuable. So, the sage wears coarse clothes and carries jade in his bosom.

Chapter 71
Knowing that you do not know is superior, not knowing you do not know is a sickness. Now, only by being sick of sickness, so there will be no sickness. The sage is not sick because he is sick of sickness, so therefore, he is not sick.

Chapter 72
When the people do not fear power, then great power arrives. Do not be familiar with people in their dwellings and do not grow sick of them in their living. Now, only because there is no dislike, so there is no rejection. So, the sage knows himself but does not see himself, he loves himself but does not value himself. Therefore, he leaves that and gets this.

Chapter 73
Courageous at daring, thus death, courageous at not daring, thus life. These two, either have benefit or harm. What the sky finds evil, who knows why? So, the sage also has difficulties in understanding why.
The sky's Dao does not contend and therefore is good at defeating, it does not speak, yet it is good at responding, it does not summon, yet it comes itself, it is relaxed, yet good at planning. The net of the sky is vast, it scatters but does not neglect.

Chapter 74
The people do not fear death, so how are you going to fear them with death. If you make the people constantly fear death, yet one does strange things, I will grab them and kill them, then who will dare to be strange. To constantly have an executioner is to have killing. Now, to replace the executioner's killing is called replacing him with the master craftsman's chop. Now, to replace the master craftsman's chop, only a few will have their hands not damaged.

Chapter 75
The people are hungry because their superiors take too many taxes, so they are hungry. People are hard to manage because their superiors have action, so they are difficult to manage.
When people take death lightly, this is because they are richly seeking life, so the people take death lightly.

Chapter 76
At birth humans are soft and weak, at death they are hard and strong. At birth the ten thousand things, the plants and trees are soft and full, at death they are dry and withered. Therefore, the hard and strong follow death, the soft and weak follow life.
So, a strong army will not win and strong wood will break. The strong and great have their place below, while the soft and weak have their place above.

Chapter 77
The sky's Dao, is it not like drawing a bow? Up is pressed down, down is lifted up, to have a surplus is to be reduced, to have deficiency is to be supplemented. The sky's Dao is to reduce what has surplus and to supplement that which is deficient. The Dao of man is not so, it reduces what is deficient and offers to that which has surplus.
Those who are able to have surplus and give offerings to everything that is underneath the sky, only they have the Dao. So, the sage acts, yet does not depend on, accomplishes, yet does not dwell and does not desire to show his worth.

Chapter 78
In all that is underneath the sky nothing is softer and weaker than water, yet in attacking the hard and strong, nothing can defeat it, this is because its emptiness is changeable. The weak deafeats the strong, the soft defeats the hard, in everything that is underneath the sky, no one does not know this but no one is able to do it.
So, the sage says: "to receive the flith of the state is called the governing alter for the gods of earth and grain. To recieve the bad luck of the state is the king of eveything that is underneath the sky." Upright words seem to be in reverse.

Chapter 79
In harmonising great resentment their must have some suprlus resentment left over, how can this be good? So, the sage holds the left contract, yet does not demand from people.
One who has quiescence is in charge of the contract, those without quiescence are in charge of taxes. The sky's Dao has no relatives and is constantly with good people.

Chapter 80
A small state with few people makes ten multiples of a hundred implements, yet does not use them. Make the people feel heavy about death and do not let them move far away. Although they have boats and carts, there is no place to ride them. Although they have armour and weapons there is no place to display them.
Make the people again tie knots and use them. Sweet foods, beautiful clothes, quiet dwellings and happy customs. Neigbouring states look at each other, the sounds of chickens and dogs also heard by each other, the people reach an old age and die without mutually going back and forth.

Chapter 81
Truthworthy words are not beautiful, beautiful words are not trustworthy. Good does not distinguish, distinguishing is not good. Knowing is not extensive, extensivness is not knowing.
The sage does not accumulate. He acts for the people, so the more he will have. He gives to the people, so the even more abundant he will be. The sky's Dao benefits all and does not harm any. The Dao of the sage acts, yet does not contend.

Chinese Texts, Translation Notes and Analysis
Chapter

Line 4
此兩者，同出，而異名，同謂之玄 13 。玄之又 14 玄，眾妙之門。 hé ng 恆, except for in chapter 16, line 2 and 3; chapter 52, line 5 and chapter 55, line 5. The only common denominator between these two characters is that they both can mean "constant." This idea of constant seems to be mutually exchangeable with the words "normal" or "constantly." It seems that Lǎozǐ sees nature's way as being the norm, therefore, cháng could be translated as "natural," "naturally," "nature's way" or "naturalness." I originally translated it in this way but took these translations out as a direct translation would still require, "constant," or "constantly.  4 In modern Chinese fēichá ng 非常 means "extremely." 5 Characters such as yě 也, hū 乎, yǐ 矣, zhě 者, fú 夫, zāi 哉 can all have varying meanings depending on how they are used. They were most likely originally used as a type of pause to help the reader have some form of sentence structure, so they know where they are in the sentence. Therefore, I always add some form of pause by using a comma or full stop in the Chinese text behind these characters. 6 In the MWD versions A and B, tiāndì 天地 (sky and earth) is wà nwù 萬物 (ten thousands things). 7 Where the word zhī 之 is, I generally add "the." If the zhī is the second last word of the sentence, I take that part and put it at the beginning of the sentence. The character de 的 is the modern equivalent of zhī 之. 8 Ten thousand things mean "everything." 9 The character yǐ 以 is one of the most common grammar characters used in the Dàodéjīng and can have a vast array of meanings depending on the sentence. My view in regard to translating yǐ is that I use, "so," "can," "is" or "because" wherever possible. Otherwise, I insert the most reasonable English grammar word. 10 The character qí 其 is normally translated as "it/s," "the," "this" or "their." 11 In the MWD version A, mià o 妙 (mystery) is miǎo 眇 (miniscule). 12 In the MWD versions A and B, jià o 徼 (boundary or border) is jià o 噭 (it is most likely an alternate form of jià o 徼). 13 The character xuá n 玄 is used throughout the Dàodéjīng and could be translated in many ways. It is commonly translated as "dark." It seems that Lǎozǐ most likely did not mean dark as we use it in English. If we understand it from Lǎozǐ's perspective it appears to mean something indescribable, like the Dào. As Lǎozǐ commonly uses this character in a positive manner, I use the word "profound," as in English, something profound tends to be indescribable but is also used in a positive way. MWD omits, zhīxuá n 之玄. 14 The grammar word yòu 又 has been translated as "even more," as the character means a repetition or continuation in action.  26 In line 2, we see an early usage of the philosophy of yin and yang with this idea of duality. 27 In the Guōdiàn, this line reads: 又亡之相生也。 28 The Guōdiàn mistakenly uses shè ng 聖 (sage). 29 The characters shìyǐ 是以 is always translated as "so" in this paper. 30 In the MWD versions A and B, chǔ 處 (reside or dwell) is jū 居 (residence). 31 In the MWD wú 無 is wú 无 and in the Guōdiàn is sometimes wáng 亡. These three characters (無, 无, 亡) have historically been used to represent the word "no or not any." 32 MWD version A, uses the character shēng 聲, which means "sound." MWD version B does not have a character for this.

MWD 不貴難得之貨，使民不為盜。
Examples like this clearly show that a scribe is writing down an orally memorised or orally spoken version and is simply writing a sound as opposed to a character, hence the mistake. 33 In the Guōdiàn, this line reads: 是以，聖人居亡為之事。 34 In the MWD version B, zuò 作 (to do) is xī 昔 (former times, in the past). 35 The character yān 焉 is used throughout the Dàodéjīng, it is a synonym of zāi 哉 and hū 乎. It is also a final modal particle, used to show a particular state or express affirmation, doubt or exclamation. I have omitted any form of translation for it. Zāi can sometimes be translated with an exclamation mark. The character hū 乎 can have various meaning but is either translated with an exclamation or question mark. The character xī 兮 could also be translated with an exclamation but in some places I have used the colloquial English word "ah," which is based on the modern usage of the mandarin word, a 啊. The classical version of "ah" is jū 且. 36 The character ér 而 is a grammar character normally translated as "yet," but where that does not work in a sentence, "but" or "and" is used. 37 In the MWD cí 辭 (decline) is shǐ 始 (start). 38 These four characters: 生，而不有 are not in the MWD version. 39 In many cases within the MWD, bù不 (no) is fú弗 (not). 40 In the MWD version A, shì 恃 (depend on) is zhì志 (will or aspiration). 41 Throughout the Dàodé jīng there are many words used to describe a negative, such as, "no," or "not." Some examples include, fú 弗, bù 不, wú 無, mò 莫 and wù 勿. 42 The character fú 夫 is one of the most common grammar words used in the Dàodéjīng. It can be used as a generic personal pronoun, a generic demonstrative pronoun and a sentence-initial particle which introduces a topic. I have generally translated it as "now." Fúwéi 夫唯 is the most common usage of fú in the Dàodéjīng and is translated as "now, only …" 43 In the MWD versions A and B, shà ng 尚 (esteem) is shà ng 上 (up). 44 The character dé 得 can mean "to obtain," "to gain" or "to acquire."  45 In the MWD version A, shè ng 聖 (sage) is shēng 聲 (sound). 46 In the MWD version A, these three words are not there. In the MWD version B, qí 其 (his, her, its, their) is qí 亓 (this is an archaic word and means "his," "her," "its," or "their"). In the MWD versions this character difference is very common. I will continue to underline it but will not mention it any more in the comments after this chapter. It is unclear if qí is referring to the sage or referring to others, therefore, I have chosen, "the" as the translation, as it is more generic. 47 In ancient Chinese, when there is one character followed by a zhě 者, which is then followed by a few words and then a yě 也, it is the first word before the zhě, which is being defined. In line 5, fú 夫 is translated as "now." The sentence infers that it is nearly a rule in the way that those who have wisdom will dare not act. 48 The character zé 則 in Chinese is very important and can be difficult to translate into English. It is used throughout the Dàodéjīng as a conjunction to indicate cause and effect. It could therefore be translated as "thus" but this word seems too weak, as the cause and effect that zé refers to is something that is more concrete like a law. As I have been unable to find one word in English that seems to fit, I use "thus," "because," or "so as to become." 49 Chōng 沖 means to "infuse." This word has connotations with zhōng 盅, which is a "small handleless cup." The assumption in the context of sentence is that this character chōng is referring to emptiness. 50 In this case huò 或 has no specific meaning and is used as a conjunction. In the MWD, xī 兮 is always hē 呵. 52 In MWD version A, sì 似 (like or similar) is shǐ 始 (start) and in version B, it is 佁, and is most likely pronounced yǐ and means "foolish" or "static." Maybe something is static just before it starts. This same change is made in line 4. 53 In the MWD version A, yuān 淵 (deep pool, profound, deep) is xiāo 瀟 (deep and clear water). 54 In the MWD versions A and B, cuò 挫 (subdue) is cuò 銼 (a file). 55 In the MWD version B, ruì 鋭 (sharp) is duì 兑 (exchange). 56 In the MWD version B, fēn 紛 (entangled) is fēn 芬 (fragrance). 57 In modern Chinese the character huò 或 is a conjunction and means "or" but in this case it can mean "perhaps". 58 In Chinese bǎixìng 百姓 directly means a hundred surnames, family or clan names but indirectly means "the common people." 59 In this chapter, the idea of "straw dogs" appears to be introducing a core concept within the Dàodéjīng as that of living naturally in the way nature intended by not interfering and accepting that by not interfering with nature, nature can seem to be very harsh. The sage understands the harshness of this principle but still adheres to it. 60 See n.45. 61 In the MWD version A, xì ng 姓 (family name) is xǐng 省 (pay a visit to one's parent or inspect or examine).  62 In the MWD versions A and B, qū 屈 (to exhaust) is gǔ 淈 (to exhaust). 63 The Guōdiàn uses the exact same characters as these four. 64 In the MWD versions A and B, yù 愈 (more) is yú 俞 (consent or approve). 65 In the MWD version B, yóu 猶 (just as or like) is yóu 猷 (plan or scheme). 66 In the MWD versions A and B, yá n 言 (talk) is wé n 聞 (hear). 67 Yá n 言 can mean talk or speech. 68 In this case gǔ 谷 is not the simplified version of gǔ 穀. The character gǔ is an ancient character from shàng oracle bone script itself. In the MWD versions A and B, gǔ 谷 (valley) is yù 浴 (bath, wash or bathe. It is most likely an alternate form of gǔ). 69 Both MWD versions A and B use wè i 胃 (stomach and is an alternative form of wè i) instead of wè i 謂. 70 The character pì n 牝 is a type of generic female adjective added to words like chicken and horse, in the way that when added, these words become, hen and mare. 71 As the Dào produced everything, Lǎozǐ uses feminine similes such as, the valley spirit, the profound female and the  74 The characters suǒyǐ 所以 are used to introduce a clause of result, which is preceded by a clause of reason. Potential translations could be "therefore," "because" or "as a result of." I prefer to use "so" because in this paper gù 故 is always translated as "therefore." 75 In the MWD version B, hòu 後 (back) is tuì 退 (to move back). In the MWD version B, it is ruì 芮 (tiny, small, the edge of a body of water ) 76 The character qí 其 can also be used as "his" or "her." 77 The character yé 邪, which is normally pronounced xié , is a grammar word that classically denotes a question. 78 In the MWD versions A and B, yé邪 is yú 輿 (this word can mean "carriage" but in this case it is used as a grammar word, it seems to be used in the same way as yé ). 79 In the MWD version B, these six characters are added. 80 In the MWD version A, ruò 若 (as if, like) is zhì 治 (rule, manage, govern) and in the MWD version B, it is rú 如 (as if, like). 81 In the MWD version A, zhēng 爭 (contend) is jì ng 靜 (still), in version B it is the same as the Wá ng Bì . This is the same in line 4. 82 The character yú 於 is another grammar word that can mean "in," "at," "to," "from," "by" and "then." Throughout this paper I try to find the appropriate word for the sentence and do not follow any strict rule of just using one translation. sky) and the MWD version A, these characters are omitted. In the MWD version A, ré n 淵 (abyss) is xiāo 瀟 (deep and clear). 85 In the MWD version A, yá n 言 (speech) is yǔ 予 (give). 86 The character wú 無 is commonly used in the Dàodéjīng. It can mean either, "no/not" or "emptiness." For example, chapter 28, line 2, wújí 無極 (utmost emptiness) and chapter 11 are all examples of wú being used as emptiness. In wúyù 無欲 (no desire), and wúmí ng 無名 (nameless) for example, the wú means "no." 87 Using this idea of bùzhēng 不爭 or non-contention is a quiescence. See chapter 68, line 1 and 2. 88 In the MWD versions A and B, chí 持 (hold or grasp) is diān 槙 (the tip of a tree). 89 In the MWD version B, ruòqí 若其 (like it) is rúqí如亓 (like it). 90 The character 揣 can have different meanings depending on the tone and is normally pronounced "chuai." But in the context of this sentence it is pronounced "zhuī" and means "to strike." In the MWD version B, this character is duán 鍛 (forge or temper, as in forge metal). In the Guōdiàn it is, tuān 湍 (rapids or rushing water). 91 In the MWD version B, ruì銳 (sharp) is yǔn 允 (suitable, allow, fair) and in the Guōdiàn it is qún 群 (crowd, group or measure word). 92 In the Guōdiàn these four characters are: 湍，而群之. 93 In MWD versions A and B, bǎo 保 (protect or defend) is bǎo 葆 (preserve or nurture) and in the Guōdiàn it is the same and Wá ng Bì .
When zhī 之 is behind a word, the zhī 之 can be translated as "the" and then put in the front of the English sentence. In this way the translation is more direct. An indirect translation of this line may be "this is the way of the Dao."  125 In the MWD version B, jì寄 (depend on) is tuó 橐 (a sack or type of bag that opens on both ends). 126 In the MWD versions A and B, tuō 託 (entrust) is jì寄 (depend on). 127 The characters yuē 曰 and wè i 謂 can both mean "call/ed," "name/d" or "speak/spoke." These translations are used except when it says míngyuē 名曰; in this case "named" is always used for the translation, as the character míng 名 means "name." 128 It is interesting to note that the character yí 夷 means to "wipe out" or "exterminate" or "non-Han Chinese (barbarians)" in ancient Chinese. In the MWD version A and B, yí 夷 (wipe out) is wēi 微 (tiny). 129 In ancient Chinese xī 希 means "a little." 130 In the MWD versions A and B, the character bó 搏 (fight or combat) is hūn 昏 (dark or dim). In the MWD version B, this hūn is preceded by a dé 德. In the MWD version A, mé i 沒 (not have) is wù 沕 (it most likely meant "no" or "not" during this period in history). 165 In the MWD version B, wà ng 妄 (absurd) is má ng 芒 (edge of a knife). 166 In the MWD version A, xīong 凶 (inauspicious) is xīong 兇 (fearful or act of violence). 167 In the MWD versions A and B, tà i 太 (great) is dà 大 (big). 168 In the MWD versions A and B, wǔ 侮 (insult) is mǔ 母 (mother). 169 In the MWD version A, yān 焉 is à n 案 (but in this case has the same use as in ān), in version B it is àn 安, in the Guōdiàn it is ān 安 (in this case it is an adverb used in a rhetorical question). 170 Here we see the grammar word yān 焉 again, but in this case it doubled up. What this indicates is an affirmative tone. 171  210 Kǒng 孔 can either mean a "hole," "opening," "orifice" or "great." What Lǎozǐ meant is unclear, kōngdé 孔德 could also be translated as "great quiescence." Emptiness has been chosen as the translation for kōng but could also mean "orifice," "open" or "a hole.

MWD 雖有環官，燕處則昭若。
the name of an ancient earthen alcohol vessel but in this case is most likely a mistake by the scribe). 256 See n.300. 257 In the MWD version B, zhōng 終 (end) is dōng 冬 (this can mean "winter," or is an alternate from of dōng 咚 which means "bang" or "thud"), in the MWD version A, this character is zhòng 眾 (multitudinous). 258 In the MWD version A, sūi 雖 (although) is wé i 唯 (only or but) . 259 In the MWD versions A and B, yǒngguān 榮觀 is huánguān 環官 (the meaning of these words are unclear but they probably refer to a guesthouse.). 260 In the MWD versions A and B, rá n 然 (so; it is also an adjective suffix) is ruò若 (as if, seems like, in the case of this sentence, it is used in the same way as rá n). In the MWD version A, pǔ 樸 (simplicity) is wò 幄 (tent). 282 By adding the character yǐ 已, the "not" turns into "never." 283 In this chapter, Lǎozǐ explains the idea of wéi 為, which means "to do," "to act," or "to be" and is the opposite of wú 無 or emptiness. As we learnt in chapter 2, these two cannot exist apart from each other, for according to Lǎozǐ if there is no A, then there cannot be a B. Therefore, it seems as though Lǎozǐ combines these two opposing concepts into one; the action of emptiness. 284 In the MWD version A, xū 歔 (blow through the nose) is jǐong 炅 (shine or bright). 285 In the MWD version B, chuī 吹 (puff) is suí 隋 (the name of the Sui dynasty). In archaic Chinese, sui appears to have the following forms: 墮 (to fall, to degenerate), 惰 (lazy), 隳 (to destroy) and 橢 (oval-shaped container, long and narrow, oval-shaped or elliptical). 286 In the MWD version B, qiá ng 強 (strong) is rè 熱 (heat). 287 In the MWD version B, yí ng 贏 (win) is zuò 坐 (to bear). 288 In the MWD version B, cuò 挫 (flex) is pé i 陪 (to assist) and in the MWD version A it is huai 坏 (bad/spoiled). 289 In the MWD versions A and B, huī 隳 (ruin) is duò 墮 (ruin).  350 This chapter marks the beginning of the section on dé德, which is commonly translated as "virtue" but in this paper is translated as "quiescence." 351 This line can be confusing as a direct translation but is very important in understanding this idea of quiescence. It could be understood that those who live by non-action (naturalness, non-interference) have upper (the highest level of) quiescence, those with lower quiescence (the next step down) still live with some form of action, whether it be benevolence or righteousness. 352 As a direct translation, lines 1-4 can create some confusion. Lǎozǐ is ranking the levels of being a natural human or one in a natural state of being. From upper quiescence, to benevolence, righteousness and finally to etiquette or rites. Rites or rituals is seen as the lowest level because according to Lǎozǐ, if you do not follow the rites, people tend to get angry. Lines 1-2 can be confusing as well, it appears as though Lǎozǐ is saying that upper quiescence is quiescence that is just naturally there, whereas lower quiescence is when one is trying to be quiescence. 353 In the MWD version B, hòu 後 (behind, later, rear) jù 句 (which is kind of like a clause) in this sentence. 354 In the MWD versions A and B, bó 搏 (thin) is bó 泊 (it is an alternate form of 搏). 355 Here we come across the characters of thick or hòu 厚 and thin or bó 薄. Ancient Chinese tended to lack in vocabulary. This is sometimes quite apparent in the Dàodéjīng, where certain characters are used because of having no other better one.
To deal with these characters in translation we can either translate directly or choose a word that fits into that character that would be close to the direct translation. For example, hòu could be translated as dūnhòu 敦厚, which means "genuineness." For bó 薄, which means "thin;" "flimsiness" could have been used. The character shí 實 actually means "full" but can also mean "honesty" or "sincere." 356 68. 359 In the MWD versions A and B, zhēn 貞 (loyal) is zhè ng 正 (upright). 360 The character lí ng 靈 could be translated in English as "intelligence" but that does not quite explain the word well enough. Lí ngxì ng 靈性 means "intelligence" (especially of animals) and língmiào 靈妙 means "ingenious." As Lǎozǐ's teachings and chapters revolve around being natural, "innately intelligent" (as this in a kind of natural instinct) seems to be the appropriate translation. In MWD versions A and B, this character is lí ng 霝, it is an alternate form of lí ng.  361 These three characters can be translated as "when" or could be translated as "causes" or "result in." 362 As mentioned previously there does appear to be a lack of vocabulary in ancient Chinese, hence some words translated appear to be odd, this line could read, "when kings do not value being upright in character." 363 Wé i 為 is a commonly used character, it is sometimes used as a noun, where it means "action." In other places it is used as a verb, where it means "to do." In this sentence it is a kind of grammar word and can be translated as "the." 364 Here we find again a kind of lack of vocabulary where, "esteem" as a direct translation would be "high." The same problem applies to "lowly" and "below," hence, the close bracket translations have been added. 365 In ancient China, the emperor when referring to himself in first person used the words guǎrén 寡人. The character guǎ 寡 means widowed and ré n 人 means person. Here Lǎozǐ is explaining the use of such words. 366 In MWD version A, yù 譽 (reputation or fame) is yǔ 與 (give), in the MWD version B it is yú輿 (chariot, carriage). 367 In the MWD version B, lùlù 琭琭 (precious stone) is lùlù 祿祿 (blessing, happiness, prosperity). 368 In the MWD versions A and B, luòluò珞珞 (necklace) is luòluò硌硌 (something hard, sharp or uneven).  401 In this sentence two types of horses are mentioned. The first is zǒuumǎ 走馬 or galloping horses which could also be translated as "fine horses." The second is róngmǎ 戎馬, the róng 戎 comes from xīróng 西戎, as it was this area that commonly provided horses to China (Ramsden, 2021, p. 37). 402 These five characters are omitted in many versions of the Dàodéjīng within China. 403 Here once again we find a word that seems to be used due to a lack of vocabulary, zú 足 normally means "enough," "ample," "sufficient" or "full." Lǎozǐ uses this form of zú in numerous places such as; chapter 44, line 3 and chapter 28 line 3.
In the context of this sentence, Lǎozǐ may be referring to the zú 足 of mǎnzú 滿足 or contentment. 404 In the Guōdiàn, dà 大 is also dà 大 but in the MWD versions A, it is cǎn 憯 (miserable, or tragic  519 The character shì 事 can be translated as, "affairs," "matters," or "business." In the context of Lǎozǐ though when the character wú 無 is added in front of shì, it probably means "no interference." 520 In the Guōdiàn, wúwéi 無為 (non-action) is wúshì 無事 (no affairs) and in the MWD versions A and B, it is qí wé i 丌為 (non-action). The character for qí normally means "his," "her, "it," or "theirs." In this case it must mean "no." Some versions of the MWD do not use qí and instead use wú. 521 In this case tún or zhūn 屯 is taken as a variant of chún 純 (simple). 522 The character fú福 can have several meanings: "luck," "happiness" or "good fortune." "Happiness" seems to be the best fit in this line. 523 In the MWD version B, mí 迷 (confused) is xī 悉 (in all cases or to know). 524 The character liá n 廉 is an old Chinese word used for the side wall of a Chinese house but can also mean "honest". In MWD version B, it is jiān 兼 (double, twice or simultaneous). MWD 恆知此两者，亦稽式也。 567 In the MWD version B, zhōng 終 (end) is dōng 冬 (this can mean "winter" or is an alternate from of dōng 咚 which means "bang" or "thud"). 568 In the MWD version B, gùyuē 故曰 (therefore called) is gǔzhī 古之 (therefore). 569 In this chapter in both the MWD A and B, zhī 知 (knowledge) is zhì 智 (wisdom). 570 In the MWD versions A and B, zhì治 (manage) is zhī 知 (know). 571 See n.180. 572 The character jī 稽 has caused translators much difficulty. This paper has taken jī to come from jīyán 稽延 which means "to postpone" or "be delayed." I chose the word postpone as in line 1, Lǎozǐ is taking about a system that is somewhat delaying or postponing any governing or interference on the people. [This] is called profound quiescence. This idea of profound quiescence is clearly the idea of non-interference. 574 In the MWD version A, shì是 (is) is cǐ 此 (this). 575 The character shùn 順 means "to put in order." 576 In the MWD versions A and B and the Guōdiàn, 谷 is yù 浴 (to bathe in the sun or wind). 577 To understand this line better, it could be translated as: so, if one desires to rule the people, your words must be modest, if one desires to lead the people, you should put yourself second. 578 In the Guōdiàn, yù 欲 (desire) is cá i 才 (ability, talent, capable). 579 In the Guōdiàn, hòu 後 (back, behind) is xià 下 (below). 580 In the MWD versions A and B, chǔ 處 (reside or dwell) is jū 居 (residence) and in the Guōdiàn it is cái 才 (ability or talent or used as grammar word). 581 In the Guōdiàn, zhòng 重 (heavy) is hòu 厚 (thick) and in the MWD version A it is hà i 害 (harm). 582 In the MWD version A, shà ng 上 (up) is qiá n 前 (in front).

Conclusion
In conclusion it could be summarised that Lǎozǐ's Dào is the profound, mysterious and abstruse aspect within emptiness that has produced everything we see. Lǎozǐ described this concept as emptiness in action. Lǎozǐ uses feminine similes such as, the valley spirit, the profound female and the mother to represent it. Lǎozǐ said people should aim to return to the Dà o, which meant a return to the peaceful, still, content and quiet state of (original) being. The techniques used to do this were simplicity (in living), non-contention, knowing when enough is enough (or no excesses), to be humble and frugal, to have no (or little) desires and aspirations, to be like water, to use the concept of softness and to take nature's way as a guiding principle on how to live. From these core ideas Lǎozǐ developed the five quiescences: quiescence of the profound, quiescence of emptiness, upper quiescence, quiescence of non-contention and quiescence of nature.
As the Dàodéjīng may have been a text primarily for rulers, it does appear that Lǎozǐ's cornerstone philosophy for ruling was based on the idea of letting things take their natural course and to not interfere too much. He called this idea, the profound quiescence. Lǎozǐ uses the sage as an exemplar for rulers to model themselves on and primarily describes them as men who do not interfere, do not contend, do not use their wisdom, do not accumulate possessions, do not go extremes, puts themselves behind the people, are modest and just let the people live naturally, whereby they benefit a hundred-fold and love their ruler.
For a final summary of Lǎozǐ's philosophy the following model is proposed: In the figure above, we can see the trinity that makes up Lǎozǐ's Dào and its core teachings which adhere to the sky, earth, man model. 670 We can also see the 5 core quiescences that were presented in the Dàodéjīng.